Chapter 15
Ecological Subregions of the United States
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Coniferous Forest - Alpine Meadow

Five Sections have been delineated in this Province:

These Sections are located in the northeastern conterminous States, including parts of New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Maine. The area of these Sections is about 43,600 mi2 (112,900 km2).

Section M212A--White Mountains

Geomorphology. The Section is part of the New England geomorphic Province. It is a glacially scoured, maturely dissected, irregular highland characterized by clusters of low, rounded mountains and scattered monadnocks. Highest elevations occur in a wide belt trending southwest to northeast through the Section, ending in central Maine. Glacial features are most evident in the Section's southern half and include cirques carved into the high peaks and U-shaped valleys, as well as kames, eskers, and drumlins. Mass wasting, fluvial erosion, transport and deposition are the primary geomorphic processes. General elevation ranges from 1,000 to 4,000 ft (300 to 1,200 m); isolated peaks are greater than 5,000 ft (1,500 m); local relief ranges from 1,000 to 3,000 ft (300 to 900 m). Gentle slopes cover 20 to 50 percent of the area; 75 percent of gentle slopes occur in the lowland. Subenvelop elevation ranges from 200 to 1,800 (60 to 550 m).

Lithology and Stratigraphy. Thin, stony Pleistocene till and stratified drift mantle the bedrock except in the Connecticut River valley, where lacustrine sediments and terraces are thick. In the northern half of the Section, bedrock is mostly Devonian and Silurian sedimentary rocks which become metamorphosed to quartzite, slate, and schist toward the southwest. The mountainous belt is underlain by Paleozoic igneous rocks (granite, diorite, gabbro, rhyolite, and basalt) that either intrude or both intrude and cover lower Paleozoic schists, and by Proterozoic and Cambrian gneiss. Much younger Mesozoic granites occur at the southern end, intruding the most abundant rock types there, gneiss and amphibolite.

Soil Taxa. Haplorthods, Haplaquepts, and Dystrochrepts with frigid temperature regime and udic and aquic moisture regimes comprise most of the soils. Cryorthods and Cryaquods with cryic temperature regime and udic and aquic moisture regimes are common at the highest elevations.

Potential Natural Vegetation. K\"uchler vegetation types include northern hardwood, northern hardwood-spruce, and northeastern spruce-fir forest. Regionally-defined important vegetation types include northern hardwood-conifer, montane spruce-fir, lowland spruce-fir, alpine krummholz, and alpine meadow. Robbin's cinquefoil is a Federally listed plant, unique to alpine communities of the Presidential Range in New Hampshire.

Fauna. Spruce grouse, black-backed woodpecker, gray-cheeked thrush, long-tailed shrew, red squirrel, snowshoe hare, and moose characterize the colder conifer sites. Ruffed grouse, pileated woodpecker, broad-winged hawk, mourning warbler, chestnut-sided warbler, red-eyed vireo, barred owl, rose-breasted grosbeak, masked shrew, northern bog lemming, northern flying squirrel, and white-tailed deer characterize the hardwood-conifer sites. Eastern woodland caribou, wolverine, mountain lion, and timber wolf were extirpated. A few lynxes, bobcats, coyotes, black bears (seasonally), and humans are the larger predators today. Pine martens are increasing and fishers are common. Spotted salamander, redback salamander, wood frog, northern leopard frog, mink frog, and eastern garter snake characterize a smaller herpetofaunal component compared to warmer and more southerly Sections in Maine and New Hampshire. The common loon, osprey, and otter commonly use the larger lakes, rivers, and flowages in the Section. Beech provides the primary source of hard mast in the Section.

Climate. Mean annual precipitation is 36 to 70 in (910 to 1,780 mm); total annual snowfall ranges from 96 to 160 in (2,440 to 4,060 mm). Rain and snowfall increase locally with elevation. Mean annual temperature ranges from is 37 to 45 oF (3 to 7 oC). The growing season lasts for 80 to 130 days.

Surface Water Characteristics. Perennial streams provide an abundance of water. The area contains the major drainage divide in New England. The Section includes the headwaters of numerous streams including the St. John, Penobscot, Kennebec, Androscoggin, Connecticut, and Merrimack Rivers. Drainage networks have deranged, rectangular, and dendritic patterns which developed as stream courses imposed from the Cenozoic were modified during the Pleistocene. For example, the Connecticut River flows across the trend of bedrock units, while the Androscoggin River skirts a major granitic pluton which the Presumpscot River drains. Stream gradients in the St. John River network are generally low; stream gradients for the other rivers are moderate to steep. Average annual runoff ranges from 16 to 24 in (410 to 610 mm) generally and from 16 to 50 in (410 to 1,270 mm) in the more rugged terrain of Maine and New Hampshire. Runoff increases locally with elevation. Maximum monthly streamflows occur in March and April. Extreme peak flows can occur any time of year and are usually associated with hurricanes or rain-on-snow events. Minimum monthly flows occur in August, September, and October. The Section contains numerous lakes, a number of which are between 10 to 45 mi2 (26 to 117 km2) in size. The largest is Moosehead Lake which is roughly 120 mi2 (310 km2).

Disturbance Regimes. Montane forests in this region lack significant fire regimes and are characterized by large blowdown disturbances resulting from hurricanes or other severe wind events and smaller area, single tree phenomena. Higher elevation forests are often characterized by an even-aged windthrow disturbance phenomenon known as fir-waves. Insect and disease disturbances have resulted from gypsy moth, spruce budworm, spruce beetle, severe beech bark disease, and butternut canker. At higher elevations, spruce decline is related to severe winter injury and soil cation depletion. Forest composition at lower elevations has been influenced by agriculture dating from the colonial period and subsequent farm abandonment since about 1870, as well as by selective logging of certain species, particularly conifers. Although regionally the distribution of modern and pre-settlement forest types matches well, 250 years of land use activity has affected forest structure and composition across the landscape. The land has been both selectively and intensively logged throughout this century and the last. Forest land has been cleared of trees and farmed since the time of early settlement. Beginning around 1870, land unprofitable for agriculture was abandoned and often allowed to revert to forest land.

Land Use. More than 90 percent of this area is forested. Most of the remaining area consists of isolated farms and small residential developments. The dominant land use is recreation. Production of wood for lumber and pulp is also important.

Cultural Ecology. Native American hunter-gatherer economic activities were prevalent within the area as long ago as 10,000 years. Settlements were small and short term. Historically, the area was occupied by Eastern Abnaki Tribal groups. European settlement occurred as early as the 17th century and increased during the following centuries. Nineteenth century timber harvesting resulted in a largely deforested landscape by the early 20th century. Harvest of restored second growth timber continues into the present. Tourism and winter and summer recreational activities, began in the 19th century and continue to thrive today. Combined, they are considered the area's number one economic sector.

Compiled by Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, and the Eastern Region.

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M212B--New England Piedmont

Geomorphology. The Section is part of the New England geomorphic Province. It is a glacially scoured, maturely dissected peneplain with open, low mountains and mondanocks. Glacial features include kames, eskers, drumlins, and lacustrine plains. Mass wasting, fluvial erosion, transport and deposition are the primary geomorphic processes operating. Elevation ranges from 600 to 3,000 ft (180 to 900 m); local relief ranges from 1,000 to 3,000 ft (300 to 900 m). Gently sloping land covers 20 to 50 percent of the area; more than 50 percent is found in lowlands. Subenvelop elevation ranges from 200 to 1,800 (60 to 550 m).

Lithology and Stratigraphy. Thin, stony Pleistocene till and stratified drift mantle the bedrock, except in the Connecticut River valley where lacustrine sediments and terraces are thick. In the northern half of the Section, bedrock is mostly Devonian and Silurian quartzite, slate, and schist, with small granitic intrusions. Toward the southern end, lower Paleozoic granite and higher-grade metamorphics (mostly gneiss) dominate, with a north to south belt of volcanics.

Soil Taxa. Haplorthods, Haplaquods, and Haplaquepts with frigid temperature regime and udic and aquic moisture regimes are common. Fragiochrepts and Dystrochrepts with mesic temperature regime and udic moisture regime are common in the northern Connecticut River valley.

Potential Natural Vegetation. K\"uchler vegetation types include northern hardwood and northern hardwood-spruce forest. Regionally-defined important vegetation types include montane spruce-fir, lowland spruce-fir, northern hardwood-conifer, and transition hardwood-conifer.

Fauna. Gray jay, Cape May warbler, dark-eyed junco, red bat, snowshoe hare, red squirrel, fisher, and moose characterize the colder conifer sites in this Section. Ruffed grouse, pileated woodpecker, turkey, red-tailed hawk, chestnut-sided warbler, Nashville warbler, black-throated blue warbler, red-eyed vireo, rufous-sided towhee, scarlet tanager, smoky shrew, northern and southern flying squirrel, and white-tailed deer characterize the hardwood-conifer sites. Timber rattlesnake (in the southern part), American elk, timber wolf, and mountain lion were extirpated through land clearing and settlement activities. Coyotes, bobcats, a few lynxes, black bears (seasonally), and humans are the larger predators today. Pine martens and fishers are locally common. Beaver-created wetlands in this Section are common. Bullfrog, green frog, black duck, wood duck, hood merganser, northern harrier, great horned owl, meadow vole, mink and otter characterize the variety of wetlands. Spotted salamander, redback salamander, American toad, grey treefrog, spotted turtle, wood turtle, northern water snake, and ribbon snakes characterize a richer herpetofaunal component than more northerly Sections. Oak and beech are primary sources of hard mast. No Federally threatened or endangered species are unique to this Section. Climate. Mean annual precipitation ranges from 35 to 48 in (900 to 1,220 mm); mean annual snowfall ranges from 64 to 96 in (1,620 to 2,440 mm). Mean annual temperature averages 40 to 45 oF (4 to 7oC). The growing season lasts for 110 to 160 days.

Surface Water Characteristics. Perennial streams are important water sources. Small lakes and wetlands occur in headwater and valley positions. The Connecticut River and its tributaries dominate the unit. The area contributes to the Hudson, St. Lawrence, and Merrimack River systems. Trellis and dendritic drainage patterns occur. Metasedimentary bedrock is exposed in some streambeds, while Proterozoic rock and alkalic plutonic rock are more likely to be found in boulder beds. Stream gradients range from low to moderate and steep. Streams are generally incised. Average annual runoff ranges from 16 to 28 in (410 to 710 mm). High values reflect differences in local topography. Maximum monthly streamflows occur in March and April. Extreme peak flows can occur any time of year and are usually associated with hurricanes or rain-on-snow events. Minimum monthly flows occur in August, September, and October.

Disturbance Regimes. This area occupies the lower end of a regional disturbance gradient, ranging from relatively frequent occurrence of fire and hurricane winds in southern New England and New England coastal areas to a very low incidence of disturbance in more northern inland sites. Percent of land in forest continues to increase over time. However, composition of present day forest on a landscape scale is heavily influenced by agriculture dating from the colonial period and subsequent farm abandonment from about 1870, as well as by selective logging of certain species, particularly conifers. Although regionally the distribution of modern and pre-settlement forest types match well, 250 years of land use activity have affected forest structure and composition across the landscape. Insect and disease disturbances have resulted from chestnut blight, gypsy moth, spruce budworm, severe beech bark disease, butternut canker, and periodic birch and sugar maple defoliators. At higher elevations, spruce decline is related to severe winter damage and soil cation depletion.

Land Use. Eighty percent of this area is in hardwood and conifer forest, most of which are in small holdings. The remaining area is in residential development, agricultural use, or urban land. Recreation is a dominant land use.

Cultural Ecology. Native American hunter-gatherer economic activities were prevalent within the area as long ago as 10,000 years. Settlements were small and short term. Historically, the area was occupied by Western Abnaki Tribal groups. European settlement occurred as early as the 17th century and increased during the following centuries. Nineteenth century timber harvesting resulted in a largely deforested landscape by the early 20th century. Tourism and winter and summer recreational activities, began in the 19th century and continue to thrive; combined they are considered the area's number one economy.

Compiled by Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, and the Eastern Region.

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Section M212C--Green, Taconic, Berkshire Mountains

Geomorphology. The Section is part of the New England geomorphic Province. North of central Vermont, the Green Mountains are north to south trending, linear ranges. To the south, they and the Berkshires are highlands characterized by dissected, flat-topped plateaus (up-warped peneplains) with scattered monadnocks. The Taconic Mountains are west of and separated from the southern Green and Berkshire Mountains by a broad, nearly continuous valley (the Marble Valley) about 1,500 ft (460 m) lower than the highlands on either side. The Taconic Mountains contrast with the plateaus to the east by being more deeply cut into peaks, sharper ridges and canyons with a linear, north to south topographic trend. Scattered glacial features include kames and eskers; the mountains have been smoothed and rounded by glacial scour. Mass wasting, minor karst solution, fluvial erosion, transport and depositions are the primary geomorphic processes operating. Elevation ranges from 600 to 4,000 ft (180 to 1,200 m) with isolated peaks greater than 4,300 ft (1,300 m). Local relief ranges from 1,000 to 3,000 ft (400 to 900 m). Gentle slopes cover less than 20 to 50 percent of the Section; 75 percent occurs in lowlands. Subenvelop elevation ranges from 200 to 1,800 (60 to 550 m).

Lithology and Stratigraphy. Thin, stony Pleistocene till and stratified drift mantle the bedrock. Upper Proterozoic and lower Cambrian metaconglomerate, quartzite, schist, and metavolcanics underlie the northern ranges. Lower Ordovician and Cambrian marble, dolomite, and limestone occupy the long valley. Bedrock in the southern plateaus is mostly Proterozoic gneiss and amphibolite with scattered granitic plutons. Rocks of the Taconic allochthon once rested atop the rocks in the Green Mountains as the whole range was undergoing the tectonic events that created them. During uplift the present Taconic range slid on a plane of weakness, under the force of gravity, to its present position; concomitant folding produced a strong north to south stuctural grain. Because these rocks were on top, they are mostly of lower metamorphic grade. slate, phyllite, and schist, with lesser quartzite and gneiss.

Soil Taxa. Haplorthods, Haplaquepts, and Dystrochrepts with frigid temperature regime and udic and aquic moisture regimes are most common in the Green and Berkshire Mountains. Cryorthods and Cryaquods with cryic temperature regime and aquic and udic moisture regimes are common at the highest elevations. The Taconic mountains are characterized by Eutrochrepts, Dytrochrepts, and Udipsamments, with mesic temperature regime and udic moisture regime on lower mountain slopes and in the Marble Valley; Fragiochrepts and Dystrochrepts with frigid temperature regime and udic moisture regime occur at higher elevations.

Potential Natural Vegetation. K\"uchler vegetation types include northern hardwood, northern hardwood-spruce, and northeastern spruce-fir forest. Regionally-defined important vegetation types include montane spruce-fir, lowland spruce-fir, northern hardwood-conifer, and transition hardwood-conifer.

Fauna. The mountainous regions of western Massachusetts and of southern and central Vermont have undergone tremendous changes in habitat conditions as a result of European settlement, the agrarian nature of that settlement, and continued human occupation of these mountains. The timber wolf and mountain lion were extirpated through land clearing activities and European settlement in the early 1900's. Other large vertebrates such as elk and moose were also eliminated from this region with encroaching settlement. Other species were also greatly reduced by human inhabitants (e.g., beaver), as have been "noxious" species like the timber rattlesnake. With the re-establishment of forests on abandoned agricultural lands beginning in the late 1800's and early 1900's, many species have expanded to their original distributions. Wolves, mountain lions and elk have not returned. However, moose, beaver, bobcat, and black bear have steadily increased both in range and population with the changing habitat conditions. Efforts to re-establish species like the fisher and wild turkey have also proven successful. Common wildlife species include red-back salamander, red-spotted newt, gray treefrog, ruffed grouse, wood duck, barred owl, yellow-bellied sapsucker, black-capped chickadee, veery, red-eyed virio, blackpoll warbler, ovenbird, little brown bat, snowshoe hare, northern flying squirrel, red-backed vole, white-tailed deer, and porcupine. No Federally listed threatened and endangered species are unique to this Section.

Climate. Mean annual precipitation is 34 to 52 in (870 to 1,320 mm); mean annual snowfall is 64 to 96 in (1,620 to 2,440 mm). Mean annual temperature ranges from 37 to 45 oF (3 to 7 oC). The growing season lasts for 80 to 130 days.

Surface Water Characteristics. Perennial streams and small lakes provide abundant water. The streams range from low to steep gradients. Channels are generally incised. The headwaters of streams in northern Vermont are located in the piedmont to the east, and the major stream courses are imposed from a previously eroded surface. The principal tributaries to the Hudson River have gentle gradients in upper reaches, underlain by dolomite, limestone, and shale. Streams underlain with shale and graywacke in the Taconics have steep gradients. Average annual runoff ranges from 16 to 40 in (410 to 1,020 mm), increasing locally with elevation. Maximum monthly flows occur in March and April. Extreme peak flows can occur any time of year and are usually associated with hurricanes or rain-on-snow events. Minimum monthly flows occur in August, September, and October.

Disturbance Regimes. This area of New England occupies the lower end on a regional disturbance gradient ranging from relatively frequent occurrence of fire and hurricane winds in southern New England and New England coastal areas to a very low incidence of disturbance in more northern inland sites. Percentage of land in forest continues to increase over time. Composition of present day forest on a landscape scale is heavily influenced by agriculture dating from the colonial period and subsequent farm abandonment from about 1870, as well as by selective logging of certain species, particularly conifers. Although regionally, the distributions of modern and pre-settlement forest types match well, 250 years of land use activity has affected forest structure and composition across the landscape. Insect and disease disturbances have resulted from gypsy moth, spruce budworm, periodic birch and sugar maple defoliators, periodic hemlock looper, ash dieback, and butternut canker. At higher elevations, spruce decline is related to severe winter damage and soil cation depletion.

Land Use. More than 90 percent of this area is forested, with recreation being the dominant land use. Most of the remaining area consists of isolated farms and small residential developments.

Cultural Ecology. Native American hunter-gatherer economics emphasized activities such as hunting-fishing-gathering; quarrying quartzite, and burning to enhance wildlife habitat, promote berry and other understory vegetation, and to facilitate travel. Settlement by Euro-Americans trended south to north from the late 1700's through the early 1800's. Nineteenth century harvesting of softwoods and hardwoods for iron furnace charcoal resulted in a largely de-forested landscape by the early 20th century. Marble extraction and mining of talc and granite were a mainstay in this area during the 19th and 20th centuries. The second half of the 19th century saw a boom in the sheep industry. Western market competition, arrival of the railroads, and new access to urban markets in the decades after the Civil War resulted in a shift from sheep to dairy farming and a move from hill farms and towns to more clustered community settlements, many with out-of-state residents. Tourism and recreation, which began in the 19th century and continue as the area's major economic activities.

Compiled by Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, and the Eastern Region.

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Section M212D--Adirondack Highlands

Geomorphology. The Section is also known as the Adirondack geomorphic Province, but includes a small part of the Appalachian Plateau (Tug Hill Plateau) at the southwest corner. It is a dissected, asymmetrical dome in overall configuration. It is most mountainous, highest, and steepest in the north and east, with lower, rolling hills farther south and west. Local relief exceeds 3,000 ft (915 m). Glaciers covered the dome, producing cirques and other scour features, moraines, lake plains, and a prominent esker system in the north-central area. Tug Hill is a southwest-tilting plateau separated from the Adirondacks by the Black River Valley 1,200 ft (365 m) below the plateau. Mass wasting, fluvial erosion, transport and deposition are the primary geomorphic processes operating. Elevation extends from 500 to 5,344 ft (150 to 1,630 m); local relief ranges from 1,000 to 3,000 ft (300 to 900 m). Gentle slopes cover 20 to 50 percent of the area; more than 75 percent occurs in lowlands. Subenvelop elevation ranges from 200 to 1,800 (60 to 550 m).

Lithography and Stratigraphy. Thin, stony Pleistocene till, stratified drift, and lacustrine sediments intermittently mantle the bedrock. Proterozoic metamorphic and plutonic rocks (mostly gneiss and highly metamorphosed granite, anorthsite, syenite, and gabbro), which comprise an extension of the Grenville Province of the Canadian Shield, are bedrock in the Adirondacks. Most of the highest mountains are composed of metanorthsite; the rolling hills are underlain by mixed gneisses. Cambrian sandstone underlies the northern margin of the dome; combined with some Ordovician sediments, it overlies the Proterozoic in small grabens across the dome. Tug Hill is supported by sandstone on top; shale and limestone are exposed in the steep northeast face; shale underlies the valley; all are Ordovician in age.

Soil Taxa. Haplorthods and Haplaquods with frigid temperature regime and udic and aquic moisture regimes comprise most of the Section. Cryorthods and Cryaquods are common at the highest elevations. The southeast portion of the Section is characterized by Dystrochrepts and Fragiochrepts with frigid temperature regime and udic moisture regime.

Potential Natural Vegetation. K\"uchler vegetation types include northern hardwood-spruce and northeastern spruce-fir forest. Regionally-defined important vegetation types include montane spruce-fir, lowland spruce-fir, northern hardwood-conifer, alpine krummholz, and alpine meadow.

Fauna. Major habitat alterations were associated with intensive logging and human settlement during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Beaver, fisher, and pine marten were extirpated due to habitat loss and over-harvest. By the late 1800's predators such as lynx, cougar, and gray wolf were extirpated; white-tailed deer, bobcat and black bear were reduced in numbers. Moose were present until the mid-1800's. Other species such as eastern cottontail, gray fox, opossum, and coyote experienced range expansions. Protection and limits on harvest have enabled beaver, marten, and fisher to re-colonize too widely. Moose populations remain small. Southern flying squirrel, star-nosed mole, white-footed mouse, raccoon and white-tailed deer are found in deciduous or mixed forests or meadows and agricultural areas. Eastern pipistrelle, small-footed bat, and big brown bat are winter residents of rocky caves and mines, while the hoary bat and red bat are summer residents. Masked, water, and smoky shrew can be found at most elevations. Meadow vole, rock vole, woodland vole, northern bog lemming, southern bog lemming, red squirrel, and smoky shrew utilize coniferous, deciduous, and mixed forests. Long-tailed shrew and southern red-backed vole are most common in alpine environments. Common merganzer, blackburnian warbler, broad-winged hawk, boreal chickadee, black-throated-green warbler, and black-throated-blue warbler are common. Less common is the gray-cheeked thrush (high elevations) and white-winged crossbills. Acidification related to atmospheric pollution have exerted negative impacts on former brook trout ponds. There are no Federally listed threatened and endangered species unique to this area; there is one known population of the Federally endangered Indiana bat in the Adirondack Park.

Climate. Mean annual precipitation is from 40 to 48 in (1,010 to 1,220 mm) and is evenly distributed throughout the year. Annual snowfall averages from 60 to more than 140 in (1,500 to 3,550 mm), generally increasing with elevation and with proximity to Lake Ontario. Mean annual temperature ranges from 37 to 45 oF (3 to 7 oC). The growing season lasts from 90 to 150 days, decreasing with increasing elevation.

Surface Water Characteristics. Perennial streams, lakes, and reservoirs provide abundant water. Drainage patterns were imposed upon the basement rock of the Adirondacks during uplift and erosion. The overall stream drainage pattern is radial, but patterns in the central portion are influenced by southwest to northeast trending faults. Stream gradients are low in the interior of the Section and moderate to steep on the perimeter. Waterfalls and rapids occur. Average annual runoff ranges from 20 to 35 in (510 to 890 mm), increasing with elevation. Maximum monthly flow occurs in March and April. Extreme peak flows can occur anytime of year and are usually associated with hurricanes or rain-on-snow events. Minimum monthly flows occur in August, September, and October. Many small lakes and wetlands formed in proglacial deposits. Lake George, the largest lake in the region, (44 mi2, 114 km2), is a graben lake.

Disturbance Regimes. Montane spruce-fir and spruce-northern hardwood forests lack significant fire regimes and are characterized by blowdown disturbances from severe wind events and smaller area, single tree phenomenon. Higher elevation forests are often characterized by even-aged windthrow disturbance phenomenon known as fir-waves. Insect and disease disturbances have resulted from gypsy moth, spruce budworm, periodic severe spruce beetle, beech bark disease, and sugar maple defoliators; scleroderis canker on red pine is ongoing. At higher elevations, spruce decline is related to severe winter injury and soil cation depletion. Hardwood-dominated communities are more extensive now than in pre-settlement times due to intensive and selective logging of conifers up to about 1900, followed by fire.

Land Use. More than 90 percent of this area is forested and is used primarily for recreation. Much of the area in the Adirondacks is in a state park. The remaining land area is used for residential development.

Cultural Ecology. Humans have utilized the natural resources of this area for the past 10,000 years. Evidence indicates that the Iroquois avoided settlement within this area but were interested in white pine, hemlock, maple, beech, hickory, and elm for a number of uses. Euro-American settlement occurred as early as the 18th century. By the 19th century, tourism and recreation became the area's major economy.

Compiled by Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, and the Eastern Region.

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Section M212E--Catskill Mountains

Geomorphology. The Section is an inclusion in the northeast corner of the Appalachian Plateau geomorphic Province. Topographically, it is a maturely dissected plateau with a steep, 2,000 to 3,000 foot (610 to 915 m) scarp on its eastern margin (the Catskill Mural Front). It slopes gently westward, where it merges into the hilly landscape that typifies the rest of the Allegheny Plateau. The Catskills have the highest elevations on the plateau. They are characterized by steeply rolling uplands and ridges interlaced with deep ravines. Glaciation is expressed mostly by rounded hilltops and by cirques and other scour features. Mass wasting, fluvial erosion, transport and deposition are the primary geomorphic processes operating. Elevation ranges from 900 to 4,200 ft (275 to 1,260 m), peak elevations range from 3,000 to 4,200 ft (900 to 1,260 m); subenvelop elevation ranges from 900 to 2,500 ft (270 to 910 m). Local relief is from 1,000 to 3,000 ft (300 to 910 m). Less than 20 percent of area is covered by gentle slopes.

Lithography and Stratigraphy. Bedrock is overlain by Quaternary till or residuum on the ridges and hilltops, colluvium on the slopes, and alluvial materials in the valleys. Sandstone and conglomerate hold up most ridges and high peaks in the Catskills; slopes and valleys are underlain by shale and siltstone. These sediments were deposited during the Devonian period in the eponymous Catskill Delta.

Soil Taxa. Dystrochrepts and Fragiochrepts with frigid temperature regime and udic moisture regime predominate. Mesic temperature regimes occur in valley bottoms.

Potential Natural Vegetation. K\"uchler vegetation types include northern hardwood and northern hardwood-spruce forest. Regionally-defined important vegetation types include central hardwoods, transition hardwoods, northern hardwood-conifer, and montane spruce-fir.

Fauna. Common wildlife species include. white-tailed deer, white-footed mouse, snowshoe hare, gray squirrel, and white-throated sparrow. The gray-cheeked thrush and blackpoll warbler found in high elevation spruce-fir forests in the Catskill and Adirondack regions are uncommon in other regions. Black bears, bobcats, fishers, and coyotes are the larger predators today. Bird species which characterize this Section are blackburnian warbler, black-throated blue warbler, black-throated green warbler, yellow-rumped warbler, red-eyed vireo, solitary vireo, and hermit thrush. Although black ducks and wood ducks breed in this region, significant numbers of waterfowl are not common. Red-spotted newt, redback salamander, American toad, green frog, gray treefrog, northern spring peeper, spotted turtle, and wood turtle are among the herpetofaunal species which characterize this Section. Northern copperhead and eastern hognose snake, as well as Fowler's toad, can also be found. No Federally listed threatened and endangered species are unique to this Section.

Climate. Annual precipitation averages 40 to 48 in (1,020 to 1,230 mm); 60 to 100 in (1,500 to 2,550 mm) occur as snow. Mean annual temperature ranges from 46 to 50 oF (8 to 10 oC). The growing season lasts for 120 to 160 days, decreasing with increasing elevation.

Surface Water Characteristics. Perennial streams and lakes provide an abundance of water. Dendritic drainage dominates; karst features affect local areas. Streams are generally incised. Stream gradients vary from low to steep. Average annual runoff ranges from 25 to 40 in (640 to 1,020 mm). Maximum monthly flows occur in March and April. Extreme peak flows can occur any time of year and are usually associated with hurricanes or rain-on-snow events. Minimum monthly flows occur in August, September, and sometimes October.

Disturbance Regimes. Significant fire regime is absent. Higher elevation spruce-fir forests are characterized by blowdown disturbances from severe wind events and smaller area, single tree mortality. Insect and disease disturbances have resulted from beech bark disease, Dutch elm disease, hemlock wooly adelgid, and chestnut blight, which have resulted in the reduction of some species. Selective logging through about 1880 impacted forest composition. Hemlock, once an abundant species, was selectively logged and has not come back readily.

Land Use. More than 80 percent of this area is in forest land, with farms scattered or absent. The Catskills are used mainly for recreation.

Cultural Ecology. Humans first entered the area during the Paleo-Indian period (about 8,000 to 10,000 B.C.). These people were highly mobile, occupied small, temporary hunting-fishing camps, and hunted wild game. The Archaic period (about 8,000 to 1,000 B.C.) was characterized by changes in human adaptations in response to environmental changes. The climate became warmer, the vegetation changed, and new game fauna proliferated (e.g., deer, elk, and turkey). At the end of the Transitional-Woodland period (about 1,000 to 1,600 A.D.) Mohican Tribal groups inhabited the area. By 1700, the Mohicans moved higher up into the mountains to avoid the expansion of European settlement and returned to hunting-gathering pursuits. By the 19th century, timber had been harvested, and a number of other natural resources had been exploited over much of the area.

Compiled by Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, and the Eastern Region.

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