Data for analysis of blackbird flock responses toward a spraying drone in an agroecosystem: Importance of flock size, habitat, and time of day

Metadata:
Identification_Information:
Citation:
Citation_Information:
Originator: White, Mallory G.
Originator: Duttenhefner, Jessica L.
Originator: Klug, Page E.
Publication_Date: 2025
Title:
Data for analysis of blackbird flock responses toward a spraying drone in an agroecosystem: Importance of flock size, habitat, and time of day
Geospatial_Data_Presentation_Form: tabular digital data
Series_Information:
Series_Name: Research Dataset Series
Publication_Information:
Publication_Place: Fort Collins, CO
Publisher: USDA, APHIS, WS National Wildlife Research Center
Online_Linkage: https://doi.org/10.2737/NWRC-RDS-2024-006
Description:
Abstract:
We evaluated flock responses to a drone capable of spraying when first approached and with 10 minutes of hazing to inform protocols for delivering repellents on agricultural landscapes. We used eye-in-the-sky drones to video the drone with spraying capabilities and capture if flocks took flight within 80 meters (i.e., range of potential spray drift). We measured flight initiation distance (FID) when close approach occurred (i.e., drone ≤80 meters from flock). While hazing, we piloted the drone to 1) repeatedly cut through a flock and create chaos or 2) move along the flock edge to herd birds out of target habitat (i.e., sunflower or cattail). We recorded abandonment, flock reduction, and return rate of birds in response to drone hazing. This study was implemented between September 2019 through October 2020 in multiple counties in North Dakota, USA where blackbird damage to sunflowers is prevalent. This data publication contains the data and R code used to analyze these data.
Purpose:
We designed this study to evaluate the blackbird flock response to a drone capable of spraying when first approached and with 10 minutes of hazing to inform protocols for delivering repellents on agricultural landscapes.
Supplemental_Information:
For more information about this study and these data, see White et al. (2025).
Time_Period_of_Content:
Time_Period_Information:
Range_of_Dates/Times:
Beginning_Date: 201909
Ending_Date: 202010
Currentness_Reference:
Ground condition
Status:
Progress: Complete
Maintenance_and_Update_Frequency: As needed
Spatial_Domain:
Description_of_Geographic_Extent:
We conducted drone trials in commercial sunflower fields in Bottineau, Burleigh, Emmons, Kidder, Logan, and McHenry counties in North Dakota, USA, where blackbird damage to sunflowers is prevalent.
Bounding_Coordinates:
West_Bounding_Coordinate: -100.70670
East_Bounding_Coordinate: -99.65003
North_Bounding_Coordinate: 48.97650
South_Bounding_Coordinate: 46.00088
Keywords:
Theme:
Theme_Keyword_Thesaurus: ISO 19115 Topic Category
Theme_Keyword: biota
Theme:
Theme_Keyword_Thesaurus: National Research & Development Taxonomy
Theme_Keyword: Ecology, Ecosystems, & Environment
Theme_Keyword: Wildlife (or Fauna)
Theme_Keyword: Birds
Theme:
Theme_Keyword_Thesaurus: None
Theme_Keyword: antipredator behavior
Theme_Keyword: crop damage
Theme_Keyword: deterrent
Theme_Keyword: human-wildlife conflict
Theme_Keyword: unmanned aerial vehicle
Theme_Keyword: UAV
Theme_Keyword: unoccupied aircraft system
Theme_Keyword: UAS
Theme_Keyword: vertebrate pests
Theme_Keyword: visual deterrent
Place:
Place_Keyword_Thesaurus: None
Place_Keyword: North Dakota
Taxonomy:
Keywords/Taxon:
Taxonomic_Keyword_Thesaurus:
None
Taxonomic_Keywords: single species
Taxonomic_Keywords: animals
Taxonomic_System:
Classification_System/Authority:
Classification_System_Citation:
Citation_Information:
Originator: ITIS
Publication_Date: 2024
Title:
Integrated Taxonomic Information System
Geospatial_Data_Presentation_Form: online database
Other_Citation_Details:
Retrieved [December, 20, 2024]
Online_Linkage: https://www.itis.gov/
Online_Linkage: https://doi.org/10.5066/F7KH0KBK
Taxonomic_Procedures:
Taxonomic_Classification:
Taxon_Rank_Name: Kingdom
Taxon_Rank_Value: Animalia
Applicable_Common_Name: Animal
Applicable_Common_Name: animaux
Applicable_Common_Name: animals
Taxonomic_Classification:
Taxon_Rank_Name: Subkingdom
Taxon_Rank_Value: Bilateria
Applicable_Common_Name: triploblasts
Taxonomic_Classification:
Taxon_Rank_Name: Infrakingdom
Taxon_Rank_Value: Deuterostomia
Taxonomic_Classification:
Taxon_Rank_Name: Phylum
Taxon_Rank_Value: Chordata
Applicable_Common_Name: cordés
Applicable_Common_Name: cordado
Applicable_Common_Name: chordates
Taxonomic_Classification:
Taxon_Rank_Name: Subphylum
Taxon_Rank_Value: Vertebrata
Applicable_Common_Name: vertebrado
Applicable_Common_Name: vertébrés
Applicable_Common_Name: vertebrates
Taxonomic_Classification:
Taxon_Rank_Name: Infraphylum
Taxon_Rank_Value: Gnathostomata
Taxonomic_Classification:
Taxon_Rank_Name: Superclass
Taxon_Rank_Value: Tetrapoda
Taxonomic_Classification:
Taxon_Rank_Name: Class
Taxon_Rank_Value: Aves
Applicable_Common_Name: Birds
Applicable_Common_Name: oiseaux
Taxonomic_Classification:
Taxon_Rank_Name: Order
Taxon_Rank_Value: Passeriformes
Applicable_Common_Name: Perching Birds
Applicable_Common_Name: passereaux
Taxonomic_Classification:
Taxon_Rank_Name: Family
Taxon_Rank_Value: Icteridae
Applicable_Common_Name: American Blackbirds
Applicable_Common_Name: Orioles
Applicable_Common_Name: New World Blackbirds
Access_Constraints: None
Use_Constraints:
These data were collected using funding from the U.S. Government and can be used without additional permissions or fees. If you use these data in a publication, presentation, or other research product please use the following citation:

White, Mallory G.; Duttenhefner, Jessica L.; Klug, Page E. 2025. Data for analysis of blackbird flock responses toward a spraying drone in an agroecosystem: Importance of flock size, habitat, and time of day. Research Dataset Series. USDA, APHIS, WS National Wildlife Research Center. Ft. Collins, Colorado. https://doi.org/10.2737/NWRC-RDS-2024-006
Point_of_Contact:
Contact_Information:
Contact_Organization_Primary:
Contact_Organization: USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Service, National Wildlife Research Center
Contact_Person: Page Klug
Contact_Position: Supervisory Research Wildlife Biologist
Contact_Address:
Address_Type: mailing and physical
Address: 4101 LaPorte Ave.
City: Fort Collins
State_or_Province: CO
Postal_Code: 80521
Country: USA
Contact_Voice_Telephone: 701-630-3776
Contact_Electronic_Mail_Address: page.e.klug@usda.gov
Contact Instructions: This contact information was current as of original publication date. For current information see Contact Us page on: https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS.
Data_Set_Credit:
This research was funded by the United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC) (7438-0020-CA and QA-3108) and the National Sunflower Association (Project #20-P03).


Author Information:

Mallory G. White
North Dakota State University, Department of Biological Sciences
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7416-2457

Jessica L. Duttenhefner
North Dakota State University, Department of Biological Sciences
https://orcid.org/0009-0006-2672-8421

Page E. Klug
USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Service, National Wildlife Research Center
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0836-3901
Cross_Reference:
Citation_Information:
Originator: White, Mallory G.
Originator: Duttenhefner, Jessica L.
Originator: Klug, Page E.
Publication_Date: 2025
Title:
Establishing protocols to apply repellents while hazing crop pests: importance of habitat, flock size, and time on blackbird (Icteridae) responses to a drone capable of spraying
Geospatial_Data_Presentation_Form: journal article
Series_Information:
Series_Name: Wildlife Research
Issue_Identification: 52(3): WR24066
Online_Linkage: https://doi.org/10.1071/WR24066
Analytical_Tool:
Analytical_Tool_Description:
ImageJ - Image Processing and Analysis in Java
Tool_Access_Information:
Online_Linkage: https://imagej.net/ij/
Tool_Access_Instructions:
See website
Tool_Citation:
Citation_Information:
Originator: Rasband, Wayne S.
Publication_Date: 1997
Title:
ImageJ
Geospatial_Data_Presentation_Form: software
Publication_Information:
Publication_Place: Bethesda, Maryland, USA
Publisher: U.S. National Institutes of Health
Online_Linkage: https://imagej.net/ij/
Analytical_Tool:
Analytical_Tool_Description:
Google Earth Pro
Tool_Access_Information:
Online_Linkage: https://www.google.com/earth/about/
Tool_Access_Instructions:
See website
Tool_Citation:
Citation_Information:
Originator: Google
Publication_Date: 2021
Title:
Google Earth Pro
Edition: Version 7.3.4.8248
Geospatial_Data_Presentation_Form: software
Online_Linkage: https://www.google.com/earth/about/versions/#earth-pro
Analytical_Tool:
Analytical_Tool_Description:
R is a free software environment for statistical computing and graphics.
Tool_Access_Information:
Online_Linkage: https://www.r-project.org/
Tool_Access_Instructions:
See website
Tool_Citation:
Citation_Information:
Originator: R Core Team
Publication_Date: 2024
Title:
R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing
Geospatial_Data_Presentation_Form: software
Publication_Information:
Publication_Place: Vienna, Austria
Publisher: R Foundation for Statistical Computing
Online_Linkage: https://www.r-project.org/
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Data_Quality_Information:
Attribute_Accuracy:
Attribute_Accuracy_Report:
Variable flock sizes, complex land cover and birds positioned below the crop canopy made identifying the flock from the eye-in-the-sky drone difficult thus estimating flock location was difficult. We used top-down screenshots taken from the eye-in-the-sky drone footage (60-80 meters [m] above ground level [AGL]) to measure the distance between drone and the leading edge of the blackbird flock at the moment flight occurred and to approximate the initial location of the flock for distance to launch. We used the known width of the Agras body as the reference for pixel size to calculate distance. Although visual estimates of large bird flocks by human observers are often inaccurate, our estimates were consistent relative to other flocks observed by a single observer (MGW) throughout the season. Therefore, the effect of flock size reflects a true biological effect. Wind speed, temperature, and ambient light data are accurate relative to the accuracy of our equipment.
Logical_Consistency_Report:
The data are logically consistent. The consistency was verified as part of the quality assurance that occurred during data analysis.
Completeness_Report:
The distance between drone and the leading edge of the flock (True_FID) was measured in ImageJ using still frames from video from the eye-in-the-sky drone. Due to limitations in the drone's field of view, trials in which the flock did not take flight within 80 m (n = 29), we were not able to measure True_FID. Distance between drone launch site and blackbird flock (DTL) was calculated by combining the FID distance with the distance the Agras flew while initially approaching the flock, thus DTL data are missing in the cases in which FID data are missing (n = 29). In two trials, FID was measured, but necessary drone data were not recorded during the trial, thus DTL could not be calculated. Pre-trial flock size was not recorded for three trials. Ambient light readings were not recorded for the first 6 trials. Flight data, field_abandonment, return, and reduction data are only relevant to the hazing study, thus were not recorded for the 2019 FID study (n = 31). Missing data are left as blank cells.
Lineage:
Methodology:
Methodology_Type: Field
Methodology_Description:
We conducted 91 drone trials in commercial sunflower fields in multiple North Dakota counties experiencing blackbird damage. We targeted locations where blackbird flocks were either actively foraging on sunflower or roosting in cattails within or adjacent to commercial sunflower fields, from 4 September to 25 October (2019 - 2020) between the hours of 07:30 and 19:00. We conducted FID trials in both 2019 and 2020, but only conducted hazing trials in 2020. We used a precision agriculture spraying octocopter (DJI AGRAS MG-1P; DJI Shenzhen, China; hereafter, Agras) to approach and haze blackbird flocks. We used smaller quadcopters (DJI Phantom 4 and DJI Mavic Air 2, DJI Shenzhen, China) as the eye-in-the-sky drones to video behavioral metrics of blackbirds in responding to the Agras.

We recorded the habitat where the flock was located (i.e., cattail or sunflower), time of day, Julian day, ambient light (micromoles per square meter per second [µmol m⁻² s⁻¹]) with a Li-Cor LI-250 Light Meter and LI-190SA Quantum Sensor (Lincoln Nebraska, USA), temperature (degrees Celsius [°C]) and wind speed (m s⁻¹) with a Skymaster SM-28 weather meter (Speedtech Instruments, Great Falls Virginia USA). We used Google Earth Pro (version 7.3.4.8248, image dates 2016–2020) to measure the area of sunflower and cattail marshes adjacent to or embedded in the crop fields to calculate the size of the sunflower-cattail complexes and the proportion of cattail. The process for drone trials was 1) a pre-hazing observation period (15 minutes), 2) drone launch and initial approach (FID), 3) hazing period (10 minutes), 4) drone landing, and 5) post-hazing observation period (15 minutes).

FID Trials - We began FID trials after the drones reached their designated heights (eye-in-the-sky = 60–80 m AGL; Agras = 5 m AGL). The pilot-in-command (MGW) and an additional pilot flew both drones manually, with the Agras at the trailing edge of the eye-in-the-sky drone’s field of view. We flew the Agras at a consistent speed (4 m s⁻¹) and height (5 m AGL) in a straight-line direction toward the flock until the pilot-in-command visually established that the flock had initiated flight. We used video from the eye-in-the-sky drone to capture if the flock took flight within 80 m of the drone. If so, we measured straight-line distances between the Agras and the leading edge of the blackbird flock at the moment flight occurred (FID) using a still frame image in ImageJ. We used the known width of the Agras body as the reference for pixel size to calculate distance. We combined the FID distance with the distance the Agras flew while initially approaching the flock to calculate launch distance.

Hazing Trials – We began hazing with the Agras after our initial approach to record FID. We continued monitoring the hazing using the eye-in-the-sky drones. We hovered both drones at the FID location and set a stopwatch to assure every flock received 10 minutes of hazing. We operated the Agras at variable speeds and altitudes during the hazing period with the intent of motivating the flock to leave the habitat. We hazed flocks using one of two flight paths including 1) chaotic (i.e., paths cutting through the flock) or 2) herding (i.e., paths moving along the outer flock edge to move birds towards the nearest exit). We considered hazing successful if an entire flock abandoned the habitat they were occupying for another habitat (i.e., sunflower to any other habitat or cattail to any other habitat). If flocks abandoned the targeted habitat prior to 10 minutes, we flew the Agras within the habitat near where the flock exited until the end of the allotted time.

For more information about these data, see White et al. (2025).
Methodology_Citation:
Citation_Information:
Originator: White, Mallory G.
Originator: Duttenhefner, Jessica L.
Originator: Klug, Page E.
Publication_Date: 2025
Title:
Establishing protocols to apply repellents while hazing crop pests: importance of habitat, flock size, and time on blackbird (Icteridae) responses to a drone capable of spraying
Geospatial_Data_Presentation_Form: journal article
Series_Information:
Series_Name: Wildlife Research
Issue_Identification: 52(3): WR24066
Online_Linkage: https://doi.org/10.1071/WR24066
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Entity_and_Attribute_Information:
Overview_Description:
Entity_and_Attribute_Overview:
Below you will find a list and description of the files included in this data publication.

VARIABLE DESCRIPTION FILE (1)

1. \Data\_variable_descriptions.csv: Comma-separated values (CSV) file containing a list and description of variables found in the data. (A description of these variables is also provided in the metadata below.)

Columns include:

Filename = Name of data file

Variable = Name of variable

Units = Units (if applicable)

Precision = Precision (if applicable)

Description = Description of variable



DATA FILES (1)

1. \Data\White_etal_2025_Wildl_Res_Data.csv: CSV file containing blackbird flock response to an approaching drone and drone hazing. This file can be used with the provided R code to analyze the results as reported in White et. al (2025).

Variables include:

trial_number = Unique identification number for each drone trial

field_code = Unique identification for each sunflower field

year = Study year (2019, 2020)

julian_day = Julian date starting from the first day of the year

time = Time of day the trial was initiated (HH:MM)

wind = Average windspeed (meters per second [m s⁻¹])

temperature = Ambient temperature (degrees Celsius [C])

ambient_light = Ambient light intensity (micromoles per square meter per second [µmol m⁻² s⁻¹])

s_acreage = Size of sunflower field within complex (acres [ac])

c_acreage = Size of cattail within complex (acres [ac])

pre_flocksize = Size of blackbird flock (estimated by Mallory G. White) (count)

dtl = Distance between drone launch site and blackbird flock (meters [m])

true_FID = Straight-line distance between drone and leading edge of blackbird flock at the moment flight occurred (meters [m])

within_80 = Did the flock take flight within 80 m of the drone? (Y = Yes, N = No)

habitat = Type of habitat the flock occupies (Sunflower, Cattail)

flight_path = Type of flight path for the drone (chaos, herding)

field_abandonment = Did the entire blackbird flock leave the sunflower field in response to drone hazing? (yes, partial, no)

return = Following full abandonment, did the blackbird flock return to the sunflower field? (Y = Yes, N = No)

reduction = Change in flock size divided by the pre-trial hazing flock size (count)



SUPPLEMENTAL FILES (1)

1. \Supplements\White_etal_2025_Wildl_Res_Code.R: Text file containing R code. This code can be used with the provided data file to replicate results step by step as they appear in White et al. (2025).
Entity_and_Attribute_Detail_Citation:
White, Mallory G.; Duttenhefner, Jessica L.; Klug, Page E. 2025. Establishing protocols to apply repellents while hazing crop pests: Importance of habitat, flock size, and time on blackbird (Icteridae) responses to a drone capable of spraying. Wildlife Research. 52(3): WR24066. https://doi.org/10.1071/WR24066
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Distribution_Information:
Distributor:
Contact_Information:
Contact_Organization_Primary:
Contact_Organization: USDA Forest Service, Research and Development
Contact_Position: Research Data Archivist
Contact_Address:
Address_Type: mailing and physical
Address: 240 West Prospect Road
City: Fort Collins
State_or_Province: CO
Postal_Code: 80526
Country: USA
Contact_Voice_Telephone: see Contact Instructions
Contact Instructions: This contact information was current as of March 2025. For current information see Contact Us page on: https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS.
Resource_Description: NWRC-RDS-2024-006
Distribution_Liability:
Metadata documents have been reviewed for accuracy and completeness. Unless otherwise stated, all data and related materials are considered to satisfy the quality standards relative to the purpose for which the data were collected. However, neither the author, the Archive, nor any part of the federal government can assure the reliability or suitability of these data for a particular purpose. The act of distribution shall not constitute any such warranty, and no responsibility is assumed for a user's application of these data or related materials.

The metadata, data, or related materials may be updated without notification. If a user believes errors are present in the metadata, data or related materials, please use the information in (1) Identification Information: Point of Contact, (2) Metadata Reference: Metadata Contact, or (3) Distribution Information: Distributor to notify the author or the Archive of the issues.
Standard_Order_Process:
Digital_Form:
Digital_Transfer_Information:
Format_Name: CSV
Format_Version_Number: see Format Specification
Format_Specification:
Comma-separated values file
Digital_Transfer_Option:
Online_Option:
Computer_Contact_Information:
Network_Address:
Network_Resource_Name: https://doi.org/10.2737/NWRC-RDS-2024-006
Digital_Form:
Digital_Transfer_Information:
Format_Name: R
Format_Version_Number: see Format Specification
Format_Specification:
Text file containing R code
Digital_Transfer_Option:
Online_Option:
Computer_Contact_Information:
Network_Address:
Network_Resource_Name: https://doi.org/10.2737/NWRC-RDS-2024-006
Fees: None
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Metadata_Reference_Information:
Metadata_Date: 20250307
Metadata_Contact:
Contact_Information:
Contact_Organization_Primary:
Contact_Organization: USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Service, National Wildlife Research Center
Contact_Person: Page Klug
Contact_Position: Supervisory Research Wildlife Biologist
Contact_Address:
Address_Type: mailing and physical
Address: 4101 LaPorte Ave.
City: Fort Collins
State_or_Province: CO
Postal_Code: 80521
Country: USA
Contact_Voice_Telephone: 701-630-3776
Contact_Electronic_Mail_Address: page.e.klug@usda.gov
Contact Instructions: This contact information was current as of original publication date. For current information see Contact Us page on: https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS.
Metadata_Standard_Name: FGDC Biological Data Profile of the Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata
Metadata_Standard_Version: FGDC-STD-001.1-1999
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