Research map showing vulnerability of Wisconsin landtype associations to increased flood flows

Metadata:
Identification_Information:
Citation:
Citation_Information:
Originator: Higgins, Dale A.
Originator: Donner, Deahn M.
Originator: Fowler, Jessica R.
Publication_Date: 2025
Title:
Research map showing vulnerability of Wisconsin landtype associations to increased flood flows
Geospatial_Data_Presentation_Form: vector digital data
Publication_Information:
Publication_Place: Fort Collins, CO
Publisher: Forest Service Research Data Archive
Online_Linkage: https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS-2025-0026
Description:
Abstract:
Areas with landform characteristics that lead to more rapid runoff are expected to be more vulnerable to increases in flood flows from more intense rainfall in the future. Those characteristics include fine-grained soils, low storage in terms of lakes and wetland, steep slopes, and high drainage densities. Landform characteristics that attenuate runoff include coarse-grained soils, high storage, gentle terrain, and low drainage densities. Groundwater recharge tends to be a dominant hydrologic process in such areas which are expected to be more resilient to increases in future flood flows. Landtype associations (LTAs) are ecological units that relate closely with characteristics affecting runoff. A case study from the July 2016 northwest Wisconsin flood regarding the design of flood resilient road-stream crossings used LTAs to classify the vulnerability of landforms in Wisconsin to increases in flood flows. Each LTA was classified as either vulnerable, moderately vulnerable, moderately resilient, or resilient based on their characteristics and results from the case study. The classification relied on professional judgement guided by the drainage density and storage for each LTA while considering the flood flows observed at nearby U.S. Geological Survey gaging stations. This data publication contains the LTA vulnerability classifications as a geodatabase and shapefile. Identifying areas that are more vulnerable or resilient to future flood flow increases will help planners and project designers improve the flood resilience of road-stream crossings.
Purpose:
These data will help project designers accurately determine the vulnerability class for their project watersheds and whether to consider adjustments to the classification. These data also contain the drainage density (miles/square mile) and percent storage for each LTA.
Supplemental_Information:
For more information about this study and these data, see Higgins et al. (in press).
Time_Period_of_Content:
Time_Period_Information:
Single_Date/Time:
Calendar_Date: 201607
Currentness_Reference:
Ground condition
Status:
Progress: Complete
Maintenance_and_Update_Frequency: None planned
Spatial_Domain:
Description_of_Geographic_Extent:
These data span northwest Wisconsin.
Bounding_Coordinates:
West_Bounding_Coordinate: -92.96444
East_Bounding_Coordinate: -86.66623
North_Bounding_Coordinate: 47.08320
South_Bounding_Coordinate: 42.45693
Keywords:
Theme:
Theme_Keyword_Thesaurus: ISO 19115 Topic Category
Theme_Keyword: environment
Theme_Keyword: inlandWaters
Theme:
Theme_Keyword_Thesaurus: National Research & Development Taxonomy
Theme_Keyword: Ecology, Ecosystems, & Environment
Theme_Keyword: Hydrology, watersheds, sedimentation
Theme_Keyword: Natural Resource Management & Use
Theme_Keyword: Engineering, roads, bridges
Theme:
Theme_Keyword_Thesaurus: None
Theme_Keyword: floods
Theme_Keyword: flows
Theme_Keyword: vulnerability
Theme_Keyword: landtype association
Place:
Place_Keyword_Thesaurus: None
Place_Keyword: Wisconsin
Access_Constraints: None
Use_Constraints:
These data were collected using funding from the U.S. Government and can be used without additional permissions or fees. If you use these data in a publication, presentation, or other research product please use the following citation:

Higgins, Dale A.; Donner, Deahn M.; Fowler, Jessica R. 2025. Research map showing vulnerability of Wisconsin landtype associations to increased flood flows. Fort Collins, CO: Forest Service Research Data Archive. https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS-2025-0026
Point_of_Contact:
Contact_Information:
Contact_Organization_Primary:
Contact_Organization: USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station
Contact_Person: Jessica R. Fowler
Contact_Position: Ecologist
Contact_Address:
Address_Type: mailing and physical
Address: 5985 County Highway K
City: Rhinelander
State_or_Province: WI
Postal_Code: 54501
Country: USA
Contact_Voice_Telephone: 715-362-1146
Contact_Electronic_Mail_Address: jessica.fowler@usda.gov
Contact Instructions: This contact information was current as of original publication date. For current information see Contact Us page on: https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS.
Data_Set_Credit:
This data publication was funded by USDA Forest Service as well as the USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station.


Author Information:

Dale A. Higgins
USDA Forest Service, Chequamegon-Nicolet National Forest (retired)

Deahn M. Donner
USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4308-3240

Jessica R. Fowler
USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station
https://orcid.org/0009-0005-2043-5911
Cross_Reference:
Citation_Information:
Originator: Higgins, Dale A.
Originator: Donner, Deahn M.
Publication_Date: Unknown
Title:
Designing flood resilient road-stream crossings: a case study from the July 2016 northwest Wisconsin flood
Geospatial_Data_Presentation_Form: document
Series_Information:
Series_Name: General Technical Report
Publication_Information:
Publication_Place: Madison, WI
Publisher: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station
Other_Citation_Details:
[In press]
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Data_Quality_Information:
Attribute_Accuracy:
Attribute_Accuracy_Report:
1. Wisconsin DNR Land Type Associations used as an input has been evaluated for efficacy and peer-reviewed to meet the objectives and standards of the Wisconsin DNR. More information can be found at: https://data-wi-dnr.opendata.arcgis.com/datasets/wi-dnr::land-type-associations/about

2. Wisconsin DNR 24k GIS hydrography data used as an input has been evaluated for efficacy and peer-reviewed to meet the objectives and standards of the Wisconsin DNR. More information can be found at: https://data-wi-dnr.opendata.arcgis.com/datasets/cb1c7f75d14f42ee819a46894fd2e771/about

3. Wisconsin DNR Wetland Inventory Geodatabase used as an input has been evaluated for efficacy and calibrated to meet the objectives of Wisconsin DNR and National Wetland Inventory. More information can be found at: https://data-wi-dnr.opendata.arcgis.com/datasets/ce3cb877dbd3425991d6879dbf5be4f7/about
Logical_Consistency_Report:
The data are logically consistent. The consistency was verified as part of the quality assurance that occurred during data analysis.
Completeness_Report:
Lake Winnebago is a separate LTA (22Ke01) that was not given a vulnerability classification because the entire LTA is a lake. Any other omissions or missing data are due to updates to the input data sources.
Lineage:
Source_Information:
Source_Citation:
Citation_Information:
Originator: WI DNR Open Data
Publication_Date: 2021
Title:
Landtype Associations
Geospatial_Data_Presentation_Form: vector digital data
Publication_Information:
Publication_Place: WI
Publisher: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Open Data Portal
Other_Citation_Details:
Data updated January 2, 2022
Online_Linkage: https://data-wi-dnr.opendata.arcgis.com/datasets/wi-dnr::land-type-associations/about
Type_of_Source_Media: Online
Source_Time_Period_of_Content:
Time_Period_Information:
Range_of_Dates/Times:
Beginning_Date: 2002
Ending_Date: 2021
Source_Currentness_Reference:
Publication Date
Source_Citation_Abbreviation:
WDNR LTA (2021)
Source_Contribution:
Land Type Associations (LTAs) of Wisconsin based on the National Hierarchical Framework of Ecological Units (NHFEU).

Data were downloaded in 2021. (Newer version of data available.)
Source_Information:
Source_Citation:
Citation_Information:
Originator: WI DNR Open Data
Publication_Date: 2007
Title:
24k Hydro Full File Geodatabase
Geospatial_Data_Presentation_Form: vector digital data
Publication_Information:
Publication_Place: WI
Publisher: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Open Data Portal
Other_Citation_Details:
(Data link is for the most current version of the data: October 26, 2022)
Online_Linkage: https://data-wi-dnr.opendata.arcgis.com/datasets/cb1c7f75d14f42ee819a46894fd2e771/about
Type_of_Source_Media: Online
Source_Time_Period_of_Content:
Time_Period_Information:
Single_Date/Time:
Calendar_Date: 2007
Source_Currentness_Reference:
Publication Date
Source_Citation_Abbreviation:
WDNR Hydrography (2007)
Source_Contribution:
1:24k hydrography for Wisconsin

Data were downloaded in 2007. (Newer version of data available.)
Source_Information:
Source_Citation:
Citation_Information:
Originator: WI DNR Open Data
Publication_Date: 2021
Title:
Wisconsin Wetland Inventory Geodatabase
Geospatial_Data_Presentation_Form: vector digital data
Publication_Information:
Publication_Place: WI
Publisher: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Open Data Portal
Other_Citation_Details:
(Data link is for the most current version of the data: November 20, 2024)
Online_Linkage: https://data-wi-dnr.opendata.arcgis.com/datasets/ce3cb877dbd3425991d6879dbf5be4f7/about
Type_of_Source_Media: Online
Source_Time_Period_of_Content:
Time_Period_Information:
Single_Date/Time:
Calendar_Date: 2021
Source_Currentness_Reference:
Publication Date
Source_Citation_Abbreviation:
WDNR Wetland layer (2021)
Source_Contribution:
1:24k WI wetland layer

Data were downloaded in 2021. (Newer version of data available.)
Process_Step:
Process_Description:
BACKGROUND

The case study of the 2016 flood in northwest Wisconsin provided peak flood flow estimates for 26 sites. The flood flow estimates characterized the extreme nature of the flood and also demonstrated dramatic differences in flood runoff and response among the 26 watersheds. Those differences in flood runoff response were correlated with landscape differences that lead to either more rapid runoff or to attenuated runoff. Those differences include storage, drainage density, slope, and soil texture. Landtype associations (LTAs) are ecological units that relate closely with these characteristics, and which had significant differences in peak runoff in the case study. Since landscapes with more rapid runoff are expected to experience greater flood flows in the future from more intense rainfall, and landscapes which attenuate runoff are expected to be more resilient to future flood flow increases, LTAs were used as a basis for classifying the vulnerability of landscapes in Wisconsin to future flood flow increases. Each LTA was classified as either vulnerable, moderately vulnerable, moderately resilient, or resilient based on their characteristics and results from the case study. The classification relied on professional judgement guided by the drainage density and storage for each LTA while considering the flood flows observed at nearby U.S. Geological Survey gaging stations.

For additional details, see Higgins et al. (in press).


DRAINAGE DENSITY

Drainage density (DD), in miles/square mile, was determined by intersecting stream and LTA layers in GIS. The stream layer was derived from the WI 24K hydrography layer (WDNR Hydrography 2007) by selecting the following linear types: CL where the area boundary type was STST (i.e., the centerline of a stream or river mapped as a polygon), ST (i.e., single line stream), and DC (i.e., ditch or canal). Both perennial and intermittent duration were used. DD excluded centerlines through lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. The hydrography and LTA layers were obtained from the WDNR (WDNR LTA 2021, WDNR Hydrography 2007).


STORAGE

Storage (STO) was determined with GIS from 1:24k WI hydrography (WDNR Hydrography 2007) based on USGS topographic maps and the 1:24k WI wetland layer (WDNR Wetland layer 2021). Lake and pond area included shaid_typ polygons coded as lake or pond (i.e., LP), backwater area (i.e., BA), and convoluted stream (i.e., ZZ) (WDNR Hydrography 2007). STO was determined for each LTA by combining lake and pond area with wetland area and intersecting these with the LTA layer in GIS. Reservoir or flowage (i.e., RF) areas were not included because this portion of the analysis was intended to characterize the general vulnerability of LTAs to flood flow increases from rainfall during culvert design. Most reservoirs are on main rivers that are too large for culverts or small bridges and therefore not relevant to the objectives. When computing percent STO, the reservoir area was removed from the LTA. Wetland area included all wetland polygons except those coded with a special modifier description of red clay complex. These units occurred on old lake plain adjacent to Lake Superior where wet and dry clay soils are intermingled (WDNR 1992). These wetland units are more likely to contribute to rapid runoff than attenuate runoff as wetlands typically do, so they were removed from the layer representing STO.


VULNERABILITY RANKING

Each LTA was classified as either vulnerable, moderately vulnerable, moderately resilient, or resilient using a combination of DD, STO, and observed flood flows at gaging stations as guides. DD and STO were used in the initial classification process. Based on the range of values, DD and STO were given a rank of 1 to 5 for each LTA and these were also summed for a total rank to guide the initial classification process. Areas with the highest DDs and lowest STO were considered most vulnerable to flood flow increases while areas with the lowest DDs and highest STO were considered most resilient, with one exception. Some LTAs have very low DDs because of very high infiltration and permeability, such as outwash sands, but also have very low STO. These areas serve primarily as groundwater recharge areas and would be resilient to increases in future flood flows from more extreme rainfall events. In these cases, DD and the LTA soil description were given priority over STO in the classification process. The 1% annual exceedance probability (AEP; i.e., 100-year average recurrence interval [RI]) flood flow expressed at cubic feet per second per square mile (cfsm) was determined for U.S. Geological Survey gaging stations with drainage areas less than 75 square miles (sq mi) and these points were plotted across the state. During LTA classification, the flood flows within or near the LTA were also used as a guide in the classification process with the highest flow rates representing vulnerable landforms and lowest flow rates representing resilient landforms. Gaging stations with drainage areas less than 75 sq mi were used because channel transit time can become a dominant factor affecting flood flows as watershed area increases above that size (Carlston 1963). The occurrence of Class I and II trout streams (WDNR LTA 2021) was a fourth factor that was considered during the classification process to serve as a tiebreaker for some LTAs. Trout streams typically have a substantial inflow of groundwater at baseflow. In areas where DD was moderate or low, Class I and II trout streams were reviewed to determine if the streams were more likely fed by groundwater or surface water with groundwater indicating greater resilience to increased flood flows from more intense rainfall. However, many trout streams in Wisconsin, such as those located in the driftless area, Penokee/Gogebic Range, and Lake Superior clay till plain have both a substantial groundwater-fed baseflow and rapid runoff in response to rainfall. Therefore, trout stream occurrence was not considered in areas with high drainage densities and high relief.


Carlston, Charles William. 1963. Drainage density and streamflow. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 422-C. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. 8 p. https://doi.org/10.3133/pp422C

Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources [WDNR]. 1992. Wisconsin wetland inventory classification guide. PUBL-WZ-WZ023. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. 3 p. https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/sites/default/files/topic/Wetlands/WWI_Classification.pdf (accessed February 15, 2024)
Source_Used_Citation_Abbreviation:
WDNA LTR (2021); WDNR Hydrography (2007); WDNR Wetland layer (2021)
Process_Date: 202112
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Entity_and_Attribute_Information:
Overview_Description:
Entity_and_Attribute_Overview:
Below you will find a list and description of the files included in this data publication.

VARIABLE DESCRIPTION FILE (1)

1. \Data\_variable_descriptions.csv: Comma-separated values (CSV) file containing a list and description of variables found in all data files. (A description of these variables is also provided in the metadata below.)

Columns include:

Filename = name of data file
Variable = name of variable
Units = units (if applicable)
Precision = precision (if applicable)
Description = description of variable


DATA FILES (2)

1. \Data\WI_ Vulnerability_to_Increased_Flood_Flows.gdb: ArcGIS geodatabase (GDB) file containing the following data for each Wisconsin landtype association (LTA): vulnerability classification, drainage density, and percent storage.

2. \Data\WI_ Vulnerability_to_Increased_Flood_Flows.shp: Shapefile (SHP) (and associated files) containing the following data for each Wisconsin landtype association (LTA): vulnerability classification, drainage density, and percent storage.

Attributes of both data files include:

OBJECTID = Sequential unique whole numbers that are automatically generated.

Shape = Coordinates defining the features.

LTA_ID = Numerical representation of each LTA (1-290).

LTA = Code for each LTA (equal to LTA_CDE in WDNR LTA).

NAME = Name for each LTA (equal to LTA_NAME in WDNR LTA).

DESCRIPTION = Land form description (equal to LTA_DESC in WDNR LTA).

LTA_sqmi = Area (square miles) of the LTA (equal to LTA_SQMI in WDNR LTA).

Storage_% = Percent storage for each LTA. Storage includes lake, pond, and wetland area with some exceptions.

Vul_Rank = Each LTA was classified as either Vulnerable, Moderately Vulnerable, Moderately Resilient, or Resilient using a combination of drainage density (DD), storage (STO), and observed flood flows at gaging stations as guides.

DD_mi/mi2 = Drainage density (miles/square mile) for each LTA. Drainage density based on perennial and intermittent streams while excluding center lines through lakes, ponds, and reservoirs.

Shape_Length = Automatically generated length of feature (internal units).

Shape_Area = Automatically generated area of feature (internal units).
Entity_and_Attribute_Detail_Citation:
Higgins, Dale A.; Donner, Deahn M. 2025 [In press]. Designing flood resilient road-stream crossings: a case study from the July 2016 northwest Wisconsin flood. General Technical Report. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station.
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Distribution_Information:
Distributor:
Contact_Information:
Contact_Organization_Primary:
Contact_Organization: USDA Forest Service, Research and Development
Contact_Position: Research Data Archivist
Contact_Address:
Address_Type: mailing and physical
Address: 240 West Prospect Road
City: Fort Collins
State_or_Province: CO
Postal_Code: 80526
Country: USA
Contact_Voice_Telephone: see Contact Instructions
Contact Instructions: This contact information was current as of May 2025. For current information see Contact Us page on: https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS.
Resource_Description: RDS-2025-0026
Distribution_Liability:
Metadata documents have been reviewed for accuracy and completeness. Unless otherwise stated, all data and related materials are considered to satisfy the quality standards relative to the purpose for which the data were collected. However, neither the author, the Archive, nor any part of the federal government can assure the reliability or suitability of these data for a particular purpose. The act of distribution shall not constitute any such warranty, and no responsibility is assumed for a user's application of these data or related materials.

The metadata, data, or related materials may be updated without notification. If a user believes errors are present in the metadata, data or related materials, please use the information in (1) Identification Information: Point of Contact, (2) Metadata Reference: Metadata Contact, or (3) Distribution Information: Distributor to notify the author or the Archive of the issues.
Standard_Order_Process:
Digital_Form:
Digital_Transfer_Information:
Format_Name: CSV
Format_Version_Number: see Format Specification
Format_Specification:
Comma-separated values file
Digital_Transfer_Option:
Online_Option:
Computer_Contact_Information:
Network_Address:
Network_Resource_Name: https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS-2025-0026
Digital_Form:
Digital_Transfer_Information:
Format_Name: GDB
Format_Version_Number: see Format Specification
Format_Specification:
ArcGIS geodatabase file
Digital_Transfer_Option:
Online_Option:
Computer_Contact_Information:
Network_Address:
Network_Resource_Name: https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS-2025-0026
Digital_Form:
Digital_Transfer_Information:
Format_Name: SHP
Format_Version_Number: see Format Specification
Format_Specification:
Shapefile
Digital_Transfer_Option:
Online_Option:
Computer_Contact_Information:
Network_Address:
Network_Resource_Name: https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS-2025-0026
Fees: None
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Metadata_Reference_Information:
Metadata_Date: 20250514
Metadata_Contact:
Contact_Information:
Contact_Organization_Primary:
Contact_Organization: USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station
Contact_Person: Jessica R. Fowler
Contact_Position: Ecologist
Contact_Address:
Address_Type: mailing and physical
Address: 5985 County Highway K
City: Rhinelander
State_or_Province: WI
Postal_Code: 54501
Country: USA
Contact_Voice_Telephone: 715-362-1146
Contact_Electronic_Mail_Address: jessica.fowler@usda.gov
Contact Instructions: This contact information was current as of original publication date. For current information see Contact Us page on: https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS.
Metadata_Contact:
Contact_Information:
Contact_Organization_Primary:
Contact_Organization: USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station
Contact_Person: Deahn M. Donner
Contact_Position: Landscape Ecologist
Contact_Address:
Address_Type: mailing and physical
Address: 5985 County Highway K
City: Rhinelander
State_or_Province: WI
Postal_Code: 54501
Country: USA
Contact_Voice_Telephone: 715-493-2004
Contact_Electronic_Mail_Address: deahn.donnerwright@usda.gov
Contact Instructions: This contact information was current as of original publication date. For current information see Contact Us page on: https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS.
Metadata_Standard_Name: FGDC Biological Data Profile of the Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata
Metadata_Standard_Version: FGDC-STD-001.1-1999
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