Index of Species Information
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Dryobates borealis
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| Red-cockaded woodpecker. Image by USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Bugwood.org. |
Introductory
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Dryobates borealis
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION:
Tesky, Julie L. 1994. Dryobates borealis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/animals/bird/drbo/all.html [].
Revisions:
On 2 November 2018, the common name of this species was changed in FEIS
from: Picoides borealis
to: Dryobates borealis. The images were also added.
ABBREVIATION:
DRBO
COMMON NAMES:
red-cockaded woodpecker
TAXONOMY:
The scientific name for the red-cockaded woodpecker is Dryobates borealis
(Vieillot). It is in the family Picidae [61]. There are two subspecies
[56,61]:
Dryobates borealis borealis
Dryobates borealis hylonomus (Wetmore)
SYNONYMS:
Picoides borealis (Vieillot) [2]
ORDER:
Piciformes
CLASS:
Bird
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:
Endangered [60]
OTHER STATUS:
Information on state- and province-level protection status of animals in the
United States and Canada is available at NatureServe, although recent changes
in status may not be included.
WILDLIFE DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Dryobates borealis
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION:
The current range of the red-cockaded woodpecker extends from eastern
Texas and southeastern Oklahoma eastward through the Gulf Coast states,
south to the Big Cypress preserve of southern Florida, and north as far
as Tennessee, south-central Kentucky, and eastern Virginia and Maryland
[2,22].
ECOSYSTEMS:
FRES12 Longleaf-slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak-pine
FRES16 Oak-gum-cypress
STATES:
| AL |
AR |
FL |
GA |
KY |
LA |
MD |
MS |
NC |
OK |
| SC |
TN |
TX |
VA |
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS:
None
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:
K091 Cypress savanna
K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
K113 Southern floodplain forest
K115 Sand pine scrub
K116 Subtropical pine forest
SAF COVER TYPES:
45 Pitch pine
69 Sand pine
70 Longleaf pine
71 Longleaf pine - scrub oak
73 Southern redcedar
75 Shortleaf pine
76 Shortleaf pine - oak
78 Virginia pine - oak
79 Virginia pine
80 Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
81 Loblolly pine
82 Loblolly pine - hardwood
83 Longleaf pine - slash pine
84 Slash pine
85 Slash pine - hardwood
98 Pond pine
100 Pondcypress
PLANT COMMUNITIES:
Red-cockaded woodpeckers are commonly associated with mature, open
stands of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), loblolly pine (P. taeda),
shortleaf pine (P. echinata), and slash pine (P. elliottii)
[20,21,25,26,45]. They also occupy stands of pitch pine (P. rigida),
pond pine (P. serotina), pondcypress (Taxodium distichum), and mixed
pine-hardwood stands [21,44]. The largest populations of red-cockaded
woodpeckers are found in longleaf pine-dominated stands [11,28]. In
central Florida, DeLotelle and others [13] found that red-cockaded
woodpeckers foraged primarily in longleaf pine and pondcypress stands
with dense ground cover of broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus).
 |
| Longleaf pine habitat in Randolph County, Alabama. Image by David Stephens, Bugwood.org. |
BIOLOGICAL DATA AND HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Dryobates borealis
TIMING OF MAJOR LIFE HISTORY EVENTS:
The clan - Red-cockaded woodpeckers live in clans which consist of a
mated pair, the current year's offspring, and immature males from
previous years that aid the parents with incubation, feeding, and
brooding duties [32,49]. The clan may have from two to nine birds, but
there is never more than one breeding pair [19]. Young females leave
the colony in late winter of their first year and wander until they are
accepted into a clan that has lost its breeding female [22].
Breeding season - Red-cockaded woodpeckers nest from April to July [19].
Clutch size and incubation - Red-cockaded woodpeckers generally lay two
to four eggs. The eggs are incubated for 10 to 12 days. The clan
members take turns incubating the eggs during the day, but the breeding
male incubates the eggs at night.
Fledging - Red-cockaded woodpeckers fledge at about 26 days. The adults
continue to feed the young after they leave the nest, but feeding
decreases as the summer progresses [19].
Red-cockaded woodpeckers do not migrate; they maintain year-round
territories near nesting and roosting trees [32].
PREFERRED HABITAT:
Colony site - Most red-cockaded woodpecker colonies are found in
relatively open (60-90 sq ft basal area/acre), parklike stands of pure
pine with sparse hardwood midstories [28,32,44]. Active colonies can be
found in pine stands with a wide range of overstory stocking, but the
birds do not tolerate dense hardwood stocking in the midstory. Active
red-cockadeed woodpecker colonies are seldom found or seldom persist
where hardwood stocking reaches 34.8 square feet per acre [28].
Red-cockaded woodpeckers will abandon nest cavities when the understory
reaches the height of the cavity entrance [23,32]. Colony sites
encompass an average of 10 acres (4 ha) [44]. In most colonies all the
cavity trees could be contained within a circle about 1,500 feet (457 m)
in diameter [19].
Cavity trees - Living, old-growth southern yellow pine (Pinus spp.)
trees that contain red heart rot (Fomes pini) are preferred for nest and
roost cavity excavation [29,44]. No single cavity is made specifically
for a nest site. A pair generally has several roost holes, one of which
they choose for a nest hole [50]. Usually, each clan member has a
cavity for roosting and only one bird roosts in a cavity [19]. Birds
without cavities in live trees will roost in scars on pine trees,
crotches between limbs, tree canopies, or cavities in dead trees
[19,51]. Roosts located in the canopy are usually at the base of a limb
or where there is a slight indentation or overhanging structure to give
some protection [51]. Red-cockaded woodpecker show some preference for
mature longleaf pine [32]; however, cavities have also been excavated in
loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, pond pine, slash pine, pitch pine,
Virginia pine (P. virginiana), and cypress (Taxodium spp.) [19].
Red-cockaded woodpeckers select trees with clear, straight trunks and
high resin flow [44]. Cavities are generally excavated below the lowest
branch [19,23]. The average age of red-cockaded woodpecker cavity trees
in which a new cavity has been excavated is about 95 years for longleaf
pine and 75 years for loblolly and other southern pines [23]. It may
take several years for red-cockaded woodpeckers to complete a cavity.
Once completed, the cavity may be used for decades by the birds and
their descendants. Some have been used for more than 50 years [23]. It
is common to find a tree with several cavities, but the birds may not
use all the cavities at a given time [19]. Some red-cockaded
woodpeckers continue to use excavated cavities for 2 years or more after
the tree has died [16,47].
Foraging habitat - Red-cockaded woodpeckers most commonly forage in pine
or pine hardwood stands 30 years old or older [39]. Good foraging
habitat consists of pine stands with trees 9 inches (22.9 cm) d.b.h.
and larger. The hardwood midstory may be well developed. Red-cockaded
woodpeckers also forage in pole-size stands (4 to 9 inches [10-23 cm]
d.b.h.), but little use is made of sapling stands (< 4 inches [10 cm]
d.b.h.) [5,19]. Clans regularly forage on pines scattered through
hardwood stands, but pure hardwood stands are seldom used [18,19]. The
size of foraging habitat needed by a clan varies with the quality of the
habitat. While 100 acres (40.5 ha) of mature pine is sufficient for
some clans, clans commonly forage over several hundred acres where
habitat conditions are not ideal [19,23].
COVER REQUIREMENTS:
NO-ENTRY
FOOD HABITS:
Red-cockaded woodpeckers scale the bark on trunks and limbs and excavate
for spiders, ants, cockroaches, centipedes, and the eggs and larvae of
various insects including corn earworms (Heliothis zea) [3,19,23]. They
spend considerable time feeding on lightning-struck pines and dying
trees that are heavily infested with insects [3,19]. Red-cockaded
woodpeckers also feed on the fruit of black cherry (Prunus serotina),
southern bayberry (Myrica cerifera), black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica), and
pecan (Carya illinoensis).
PREDATORS:
Red-cockaded woodpeckers excavate small holes called resin wells above
and below cavities. The resulting resin flow is a deterrent to climbing
gray rat snakes (Elaphe obsoleta spiloides), a predator of red-cockaded
woodpecker eggs and nestlings [22]. Other possible predators of eggs
and nestlings include other snakes, southern flying squirrels (Glaucomys
volans), Cooper's hawks (Accipiter cooperii), and sharp-shinned hawks
(A. striatus) [5,31].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
The range and population of the red-cockaded woodpecker has been
drastically reduced through fragmentation and loss of habitat. A large
portion of the southern pine forests have been harvested and cleared for
agriculture or other uses [19,23]. Continued habitat loss and
fragmentation will make the species more vulnerable to extinction as
populations become increasingly smaller and more isolated [22].
A successful management plan for red-cockaded woodpeckers must do five
things: (1) retain existing cavity trees, (2) provide trees for new
cavities, (3) provide adequate foraging habitat, (4) control hardwoods
in the colony site, and (5) provide future colony sites [19].
A high percentage of red-cockaded woodpecker cavities are found in pines
infected with red heart rot. This fungus weakens the heartwood and
makes cavity excavation easier. Some cavity trees apparently do not
have red heart rot, but these trees may have softer than average
heartwood. It is not certain if the red-cockaded woodpecker needs red
heart rot in order to make a cavity in the average pine [19,29,44].
Artifical cavities can be inserted into chainsaw-excavated live trees
for red-cockaded woodpeckers [52,53]. Of primary importance is the
diameter of the tree at the height the cavity is to be constructed.
Diameter at cavity height must be at least 15 inches (38 cm). Weakening
of the tree as a result of excavating the cavity is a concern. Whenever
possible, healthy trees with large crowns should be selected to help
assure that the tree will outlast the cavity. Over 60 percent of the
artifical cavities on the Francis Marion National Forest in South
Carolina are now being used for nesting or roosting. Dispite a tornado
and severe windstorms in the area, none of the trees have broken at
cavity height [52].
The red-cockaded woodpecker recovery plan indicates that nesting habitat
can be provided by lengthening rotations, leaving old-growth remnant
trees scattered throughout younger stands, and perpetuating small
patches of remnant old growth throughout the forest [42]. Colony sites
should not be isolated from foraging areas [19]. Jackson [22] stated
that "corridors of suitable habitat to link populations together through
management of interstate highway rights-of-way is recommended. Colonies
occur in interstate rights-of-way, and the birds will use such
corridors" [22].
In general, the longer the rotation age, the greater the opportunity
red-cockaded woodpeckers have to maintain existing colonies and create
new ones. A minimum of 100-year rotations for longleaf pine and 80-year
rotations for other pines is recommended [19]. If the decision to
harvest has been made, shelterwood cuts instead of clear-cuts may
preserve a supply of potential cavity trees if pines 80 to 120 years old
are left as residuals. This method would also create the open pine
savannah habitat preferred by red-cockaded woodpeckers, and would leave
some foraging habitat while reducing the susceptibility of the residual
stand to southern pine beetles (Dendroctonus frontalis) [9].
Control of hardwoods in the colony site is vital. Hardwoods should not
exceed 15 feet (4.6 m) or so in height, especially within 50 feet (15.2
m) of cavity trees. Stands containing colony sites should also be
thinned to 50 to 80 square feet of basal area per acre. Older trees
should be left for future cavity trees [19].
According to Seagle and others [39], "because foraging habitat is less
specialized than nesting habitat, a variety of strategies can be used to
provide necessary foraging habitat within a suitable radius of the
colony site." Hooper and others [19] suggested planting pines at a
10x10-foot or 12x12-foot (3x3-m or 3.7x3.7-m) spacing to aid rapid stand
development. Regeneration areas of 10 to 30 acres (4-12 ha) have less
impact on the birds than larger ones. Thinning sapling and pole stands
may improve foraging habitat [19].
Unenlarged or not noticeably enlarged red-cockaded woodpecker cavities
are later utilize by red-bellied (Melanerpes carloinus) and red-headed
(M. erythrocephalus) woodpeckers, white-breasted nuthatches (Sitta
carolinensis), tufted titmouse (Parus bicolor), eastern bluebirds
(Sialia sialis), and southern flying squirrels. Those species that
utilize enlarged red-cockaded woodpecker holes are red-bellied and
red-headed woodpeckers, northern flickers (Colaptes auratus), pileated
woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus), tufted titmouse, great crested
flycatchers (Myiarchus crinitus), eastern screech-owls (Otus asio), wood
ducks (Aix sponsa), fox squirrels (Siurus niger), gray rat snakes, and
honey bees. All of these species are known to nest in these cavities
except pileated woodpeckers and northern flickers, which are only known
to use the cavities as roosts [51]. Both red-bellied and red-headed
woodpeckers may delay nesting to use red-cockaded woodpecker cavities [50].
FIRE EFFECTS AND USE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Dryobates borealis
DIRECT FIRE EFFECTS ON ANIMALS:
Adult red-cockaded woodpeckers can probably easily escape fire.
However, fire at night may trap some birds in cavities [5]. Cavity
trees are very vulnerable to fire because of the highly flammmable resin
that flows from the resin wells [8]. Wildfires in areas with heavy
understory fuels could kill cavity trees used for nesting and roosting
[33]. Cavities in large pines are frequently abandoned following
enlargement by fire [16]. Artifical cavities placed 20 to 30 feet (6-9
m) above the ground may be better protected from fire than lower ones
[53].
HABITAT RELATED FIRE EFFECTS:
Despite the vulnerability of cavity trees, fire plays an integral role
in maintaining habitat both for colony sites and foraging [22,41].
Virtually all southern pine ecosystems evolved under a regime of
frequent fires. Longleaf pine habitats of the past were likely
maintained by "periodic hot summer fires." In areas with less frequent
fire, red-cockaded woodpeckers habitat occurred on steep slopes. There,
hardwoods did not reach the lower branches of some pines, and pine
regeneration could occur [23]. Without fire, pines are replaced by fire
intolerant hardwoods [10,23]. Fire helps to reclaim or maintain the
open woodlands preferred by red-cockaded woodpeckers for both foraging
and nesting [41]. Fire helps to maintain low midstories [22,33].
Elimination or extensive suppression of fire from red-cockaded
woodpecker habitat could result in habitat abandonment by red-cockaded
woodpeckers [23].
FIRE USE:
Prescribed fire is an important tool in manageing southern pine
ecosystems for red-cockaded woodpeckers [10,41,43,46,]. Periodic
prescribed fire may be the only practical tool for preventing hardwoods
from growing into the midstory and allowing red-cockaded woodpecker
colonies can persist for several generations [22,43]. The maintenance
of an open pine forest generally requires prescribed burning at 3-year
intervals [24], although fire may be needed less frequently in areas
away from coastal plains [23].
Southern pine beetles have caused extensive tree mortality in
red-cockaded woodpecker habitat. Problems with beetles can be greatly
reduced if fire is restored because trees are more vigorous and more
widely spaced [23]. Mortality from southern pine beetles increases with
stand density [55].
Summer headfires have long flames that may take out most of the pine
understory but have the potential to ignite the overstory crowns. This
type of prescribed fire can be used to eradicate the pine understory for
red-cockaded woodpecker habitat improvement [54]. Conner and Locke [7]
made the following recommendations for prescribed burning in colony
sites: (1) plow a fireline 197 feet (60 m) from the edges of colony
sites and burn colony sites separately, (2) rake fuel at least 10 feet
(3 m) away from the bases of trees with abundant resin, (3) keep fire
suppression equipment available, (4) burn colony sites with backfires at
least every 3 years to prevent excessive fuel accumulations. When
burning in longleaf pine-turkey oak (Quercus laevis)/wiregrass (Aristida
stricta) communities during the breeding season, Stamps and others [41]
gave the following precautions: (1) burn early in the day while ambient
temperatures are relatively low, (2) burn only in sites with light fuel
accumulations, (3) backfire 33 feet (10 m) to the windward side of
cavity trees before allowing headfire to approach, (4) burn in colony
sites only after nests have been identified, and (5) remove woody
vegetation from around cavity trees. They also stated that when burning
in plant communities with potential for severe fire, it may be necessary
to use additional protective measures recommended by Conner and Locke [7].
FIRE REGIMES:
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".
References for species: Dryobates borealis
1. Allen, David H. 1991. An insert technique for constructing artificial red-cockaded woodpecker cavities. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-72. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 31 p. [20676]
2. American Ornithologists' Union. 1983. Checklist of North American birds. 6th ed. Lawrence, KS: Allen Press, Inc. 877 p. [21234]
3. Baker, W. Wilson. 1971. Observations on the food habits of the red-cockaded woodpecker. In: Thompson, Richard L., ed. The ecology and management of the red-cockaded woodpecker: Proceedings of a symposium; 1971 May 26-27; Folkston, GA. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 100-107. [18047]
4. Baker, W. Wilson. 1974. Longevity of lightning-struck trees and notes on wildlife use. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1973 March 22-23; Tallahassee, FL. No. 13. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 497-504. [19015]
5. Beckett, Ted. 1971. A summary of red-cockaded woodpecker observations in South Carolina. In: Thompson, Richard L., ed. The ecology and management of the red-cockaded woodpecker: Proceedings of a symposium; 1971 May 26-27; Folkston, GA. Tallahassee, FL: Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife: 87-95. In cooperation with: Tall Timbers Research Station. [23134]
6. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
7. Conner, Richard N.; Locke, Brian A. 1979. Effects of a prescribed burn on cavity trees of red-cockaded woodpeckers. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 7(4): 291-293. [23136]
8. Conner, Richard N.; Rudolph, D. Craig; Kulhavy, David L.; Snow, Ann E. 1991. Causes of mortality of red-cockaded woodpecker cavity trees. Journal of Wildlife Management. 55(3): 531-537. [16319]
9. Conner, Richard N.; Snow, Anne E.; O'Halloran, Kathleen A. 1991. Red-cockaded woodpecker use of seed-tree/shelterwood cuts in eastern Texas. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 19(1): 67-73. [19228]
10. Crosby, Gilbert T. 1971. Home range characteristics of the red-cockaded woodpecker in north- central Florida. In: Thompson, Richard L., ed. The ecology and management of the red-cockaded woodpecker: Proceedings of a symposium; 1971 May 26-27; Folkston, GA. Tallahassee, FL: Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; Tall Timbers Research Station: 60-73. [18044]
11. DeGraaf, Richard M.; Scott, Virgil E.; Hamre, R. H.; [and others]. 1991. Forest and rangeland birds of the United States: Natural history and habitat use. Agric. Handb. 688. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 625 p. [15856]
12. DeLotelle, Roy S.; Epting, Robert J.; Newman, James R. 1987. Habitat use and territory characteristics of red-cockaded woodpeckers in central Florida. Wilson Bulletin. 99(2): 202-217. [23127]
13. DeLotelle, Roy S.; Newman, J. R.; Jerauld, Ann E. 1983. Habitat use by red-cockaded woodpeckers in central Florida. In: Wood, Don A., ed. Red-cockaded woodpecker symposium II: Proceedings; [Date of conference unknown]; [Location of conference unknown]. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service: 59-67. [23132]
14. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
15. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
16. Hooper, Robert G. 1982. Use of dead cavity trees by red-cockaded woodpeckers. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 10(2): 163-164. [20549]
17. Hooper, Robert G.; Harlow, Richard F. 1986. Forest stands selected by foraging red-cockaded woodpeckers. Res. Pap. SE-259. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 10 p. [20551]
18. Hooper, Robert G.; Lennartz, Michael R. 1981. Foraging behavior of the red-cockaded woodpecker in South Carolina. Auk. 98: 321-334. [20547]
19. Hooper, Robert G.; Robinson, Andrew F., Jr.; Jackson, Jerome A. 1980. The red-cockaded woodpecker: notes on life history and management. General Report SA-GR-9. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Area, State and Private Forestry. 8 p. [20548]
20. Hopkins, Melvin L.; Lynn, Teddy E., Jr. 1971. Some characteristics of red-cockaded woodpecker cavity trees and management implications in South Carolina. In: Thompson, Richard L., ed. The ecology and management of the red-cockaded woodpecker: Proceedings of a symposium; 1971 May 26-27; Folkston, GA. Tallahassee, FL: Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife: 140-169. In cooperation with: Tall Timbers Research Station. [23135]
21. Jackson, Jerome A. 1971. The evolution, taxonomy, distribution, past populations and current status of the red-cockaded woodpecker. In: Thompson, Richard L., ed. The ecology and management of the red-cockaded woodpecker: Proceedings of a symposium; 1971 May 26-27; Folkston, GA. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 4-29. [17996]
22. Jackson, Jerome A. 1987. The red-cockaded woodpecker. In: Audubon wildlife report: [Place of publication unknown]: National Audubon Society: 479-493. [23125]
23. Jackson, Jerome A.; Conner, Richard N.; Jackson, Bette J. Schardien. 1986. The effects of wilderness on the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker. In: Kulhavy, David L.; Conner, Richard N., eds. Wilderness and natural areas in the eastern United States: A management challenge: Proceedings; [Date unknown]; [Location unknown]. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: 71-78. On file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [23130]
24. Jackson, Jerome A.; Lennartz, Michael R.; Hooper, Robert G. 1979. Tree age and cavity initiation by red-cockaded woodpeckers. Journal of Forestry. 77(2): 102-103. [20553]
25. Kalisz, Paul J.; Boettcher, Susan E. 1991. Active and abandoned red-cockaded woodpecker habitat in Kentucky. Journal of Wildlife Management. 55(1): 146-154. [13837]
26. Kelly, Jeffrey F.; Pletschet, Sandra M.; Leslie, David M., Jr. 1993. Habitat associations of red-cockaded woodpecker cavity trees in an old-growth forest of Oklahoma. Journal of Wildlife Management. 57(1): 122-128. [20660]
27. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
28. Lennartz, Michael R. 1988. The red-cockaded woodpecker: old-growth species in a second-growth landscape. Natural Areas Journal. 8(3): 160-165. [8688]
29. Ligon, J. David. 1971. Some factors influencing numbers of the red-cockaded woodpecker. In: Thompson, Richard L., ed. The ecology and management of the red-cockaded woodpecker: Proceedings of a symposium; 1971 May 26-27; Folkston, GA. Tallahassee, FL: Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; Tall Timbers Research Station: 30-43. [18042]
30. Loeb, Susan C. 1993. Use and selection of red-cockaded woodpecker cavities by southern flying squirrels. Journal of Wildlife Management. 57(2): 329-335. [21165]
31. Loeb, Susan C.; Pepper, William D.; Doyle, Arlene T. 1992. Habitat characteristics of active and abandoned red-cockaded woodpecker colonies. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 16(3): 120-125. [19593]
32. Lowe, David W.; Matthews, John R.; Moseley, C. J., eds. 1990. The official World Wildlife Fund guide to endangered species of North America. Washington, DC: Beacham Publishing, Inc. 3 vol. [23096]
33. Mann, James F.; Fischer, William C. 1987. Wilderness fire review: Region 8, Kisatchie NF. Unpublished report on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 6 p. [18120]
34. Morse, Douglass H. 1972. Habitat utilization of the red-cockaded woodpecker during the winter. Auk. 89(2): 429-435. [23126]
35. Nickens, Eddie. 1993. Woodpecker wars. American Forests. 99(1-2): 28-32. [20016]
36. Noss, Reed F. 1988. The longleaf pine landscape of the Southeast: almost gone and almost forgotten. Endangered Species UPDATE. 5(5): 1-5. [17077]
37. Richardson, David M.; Smith, David L. 1992. Hardwood removal in red-cockaded woodpecker colonies using a shear V-blade. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 20(4): 428-433. [21169]
38. Rudolph, D. Craig; Conner, Richard N.; Carrie, Dawn K.; Schaefer, Richard R. 1992. Experimental reintroduction of red-cockaded woodpeckers. Auk. 109(4): 914-916. [21885]
39. Seagle, Steven W.; Lancia, Richard A.; Adams, David A.; [and others]. 1987. Integrating timber and red-cockaded woodpecker habitat management. Transactions, 52nd North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. 52: 11-52. [23128]
40. Snyder, James R. 1991. Fire regimes in subtropical south Florida. In: High-intensity fire in wildlands: management challenges and options: Proceedings, 17th annual meeting of the Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1991 May 18-21; Tallahassee, FL. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 303-319. [17068]
41. Stamps, Robert T.; Carter, J. H., III; Sharpe, Terry L.; [and others]. 1983. Effects of prescribed buring on red-cockaded woodpecker colonies durning the breeding season in North Carolina. In: Wood, Don A., ed. Red-cockaded woodpecker symposium II: Proceedings; [Date of conference unknown]; [Location of conference unknown]. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service: 78-80. [23133]
42. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Red-cockaded woodpecker recovery plan. Atlanta, GA. [Total pages unknown]. [23138]
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