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Geum triflorum

• INTRODUCTORY
• DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
• BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• FIRE ECOLOGY
• FIRE EFFECTS
• MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
• REFERENCES

INTRODUCTORY

AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION FEIS ABBREVIATION SYNONYMS NRCS PLANT CODE COMMON NAMES TAXONOMY LIFE FORM FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS OTHER STATUS
	© Kent Runge, courtesy of Flickr.com

G. triflorum var. campanulatum (Greene) C.L. Hitchc. [61,62,68]
G. triflorum var. canescens (Greene) Kartesz & Gandhi [67,68,69]
G. triflorum var. ciliatum (Pursh) Fassett [48,54,61,62,68,69,70,82,87,126]
G. triflorum var. triflorum [50,54,61,62,68,73]

For the purposes of this review, the common name "old man's whiskers" is used when discussing characteristics common to (or assumed to be common to) the species in general. When referring to infrataxa, the scientific names for the varieties listed above are used.

LIFE FORM:
Forb

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:
None

OTHER STATUS:
Information on state-level protected status of plants in the United States is available at Plants Database.

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE

• GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
• ECOSYSTEMS
• STATES/PROVINCES
• BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS
• KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
• SAF COVER TYPES
• SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES
• HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES

Geum triflorum var. ciliatum occurs in and east of the Cascades from British Columbia to California, east to Alberta and the Rocky Mountain states, probably intergrading with G. t. var. triflorum and G. t. var. campanulatum [4,36,61,62,69,70,82]. According to Great Plains Flora Association [54], a few specimens from the western Great Plains "approach" G. t. var. ciliatum in similarity of diagnostic traits.

Geum triflorum var. campanulatum is apparently a montane ecotype of the Olympic Mountains in Washington, and of Saddle Mountain, Clatsop County, Oregon, transitional to G. t. var. ciliatum [61,62].

Geum triflorum var. canescens is found at higher elevations (8,000 to 9,000 feet (2,400-2,700 m)) in the Sierra Nevada Range and on Hinkey Summit, Santa Rosa Range, northwestern Nevada [69]. Plants Database [121] indicates that G. t. var. canescens also occurs in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming.

Geum triflorum var. triflorum occurs from Alberta to southeastern Canada and the northeastern U.S., and south in the Rockies, where it more or less straddles the continental divide from Montana to northern New Mexico, and includes some populations as far west as northeastern Arizona [36,50,61,62]. Most Great Plains specimens are G. t. var. triflorum [54].

Plants Database provides state distribution maps of old man's whiskers and its infrataxa.

ECOSYSTEMS [49]:
FRES15 Oak-hickory
FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood
FRES19 Aspen-birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES23 Fir-spruce
FRES24 Hemlock-Sitka spruce
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES40 Desert grasslands
FRES44 Alpine

STATES/PROVINCES: (key to state/province abbreviations)
UNITED STATES

AB:
prairie Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha)-old man's whiskers [118]

WY:
mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana)/needle-and-thread grass (Hesperostipa comata)-old man's whiskers
mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis)-old man's whiskers
mountain big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata)-prairie smoke [28]

CA:
stemless goldenweed (Stenotus acaulis)-G. t. var. canescens [86]

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Old man's whiskers is a perennial forb [25,36,50,51,54,58,61,62,70,73,82,87, 126] with erect or ascending stems [60,73,82] 5.9 to 20 inches (15-50 cm) tall [25,36,50,54,58,60,61,73,82,87], often forming clumps 8 to 16 inches (20-40 cm) or more wide [54,61].

Leaves are generally basal [58,60,61], 0.8 to 7.9 inches (2-20 cm) long [25,36,50,54,58,60,61,73,82,126], these being numerous [73] and unequally or interruptedly pinnate to pinnatifid or lyrate [50,54,73,87], with 7-19 leaflets [50,54,73,87], 0.5 to 2 inches (13-50 mm) long [36,50,54], progressively larger toward the apex [54]. There are also typically 1 to 4 small leaves about mid-length on the stem [54,61,73,82].

The stalked flowers [73] are perfect [36,61,62,87,126], 0.3 to 0.4 inch (7-10 mm) long [126] and number from 1 to 9 [36,54,61,73,82,126], but usually 3 [25,73,82]. Styles are long (1 to 2 inches (2.5-5 cm)) and plumose [51,54,123]. The terminal segment of the style is generally persistent in Geum triflorum var. triflorum, while in G.t. var. campanulatum and G.t. var. ciliatum it is generally deciduous [62]. The fruit is a more or less flat [60] achene [36,43,51,54,54,58,60,61,62,70,73,82, 82,87,123,126], 0.1 to 0.5 inches (2.5-12 mm) long [36,54,58,60,61,61].

Old man's whiskers has a thick scaly caudex [36,70]. It also produces short, thick rhizomes [43,50,54,60,73,126].

RAUNKIAER [102] LIFE FORM:
Hemicryptophyte

REGENERATION PROCESSES:
Old man's whiskers regenerates from seeds, rhizomes, and probably by sprouting from the caudex. However, as of this writing (2006) there is very little published information describing old man's whiskers regeneration processes.

Pollination: No information is available on this topic.

Breeding system: Given that the flowers are perfect [36,61,62,87,126], old man's whiskers is also monoecious.

Seed production: Stevens [116] collected 142 seeds from a single "mature" old man's whiskers plant "of average size," "growing where competition was low."

Seed dispersal: Fruits are wind-dispersed [123]. Zimmerman [130] noted that "seed heads do not all ripen together...., yet suddenly and individually fall off, especially during rainstorms."

Seed banking: No information is available on this topic.

Germination: Germination is probably variable, depending on conditions, but not dependent upon stratification. Zimmerman [130] suggested that old man's whiskers seeds do not require stratification, and can germinate soon after dispersal. Baskin and Baskin [19] also provided qualified support for the idea that seeds are nondormant at maturity. Greene and Curtis [55] conducted germination tests on a variety of Wisconsin prairie species. Stratification for 3 months appeared to have little effect on prairie smoke germination, with 64% of stratified seeds germinating compared with 50% for unstratified.

Old man's whiskers seed viability may be variable from year to year. Unstratified seed collected in southern and western Wisconsin in 1937, 1940, and 1941, yielded germination rates of 80%, 14%, and 50%, respectively [55]. Germination testing on old man's whiskers seed collected from an eastern South Dakota prairie resulted in a 90% germination rate, requiring 7-16 days [115]. Zimmerman [130] suggested that old man's whiskers seeds do require prolonged wetting prior to germination [130].

Seedling establishment/growth: As of this writing (2006) there is very little published information describing old man's whiskers seedling establishment and growth. A study of the effects of pocket gopher disturbance on shortgrass prairie forbs suggests that old man's whiskers seedling establishment and growth may be enhanced by small-scale disturbance [88].

Asexual regeneration: Several sources indicate that old man's whiskers has both rhizomes [43,50,54,60,73,126] and a caudex [36,70], suggesting that asexual regeneration can occur. However, there is currently (2006) very little published information describing the importance of asexual regeneration for its survival and spread. Curtis [37] wrote that old man's whiskers was among several species "with a strongly developed rhizome method of vegetative propagation."

SITE CHARACTERISTICS:
Biogeographic: The published literature describes a variety of site types where old man's whiskers may be found. These include, but may not be limited to: montane, alpine or high valley grasslands, meadows, balds and tundra [2,36,51,69,82]; sometimes rocky and often open mountain slopes, hillsides, and foothills [69,70,82,87]; western grasslands and sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) plains [24,25,28,39,51,60,61,66,75,82,84,85, 109]; Missouri River bottomlands [3]; Great Plains and Midwestern prairie and grasslands [5,6,21,30,37,54,64,95,123]; old fields [16]; woodlands and open forests [7,51,54,60,69,70,82,85,123].

Elevation: Old man's whiskers is found at a range of elevations, from the subalpine and alpine zones of the western mountains [43,61,81,82,86], to Great Lakes prairies [95,123], and old fields in the New Jersey Piedmont [16]. In the mountainous West its elevation range might be quite broad. For instance, Lackschewitz [81] described old man's whiskers habitat in west-central Montana from valley bottoms to upper subalpine, and Hitchcock and Cronquist [61] indicated that it could be found from the lower foothills to subalpine ridges in the Pacific Northwest.

The following table lists published accounts of elevation ranges where old man's whiskers can be found in western North America. These examples should not necessarily be interpreted as elevational limits to old man's whiskers distribution, but simply as a demonstration of the kinds of elevations, particularly upper elevations, where old man's whiskers might occur.

Climate: While to date (2006) there is no comprehensive source for climate parameters describing the distribution of old man's whiskers, the following examples provide some indication of climate for habitats where old man's whiskers occurs. At a south-central Saskatchewan prairie site, mean monthly temperatures range from -0.4 °F (-18 °C) in January to 66 °F (19 °C) in July, and average annual precipitation is 14 inches (360 mm), 30% falling as snow [6]. A northern Idaho ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) habitat receives an average of 22 inches (560 mm) of annual precipitation, mostly falling from October to March [7]. A study site in the upper Blackfoot Valley in western Montana receives an average of about 16 inches (400 mm) of precipitation annually, nearly a third occurring in May and June [24]. A southeastern Oregon montane habitat containing a population of G. t. var. ciliatum has an average frost-free period of 10-50 days and annual precipitation estimated at 12-18 inches (300-460 mm), about 40% occurring in the growing season [4].

Moisture regime: The site characteristic that is perhaps most frequently mentioned in relation to old man's whiskers occurrence is moisture regime. In the more arid regions of western North America, old man's whiskers habitat is usually characterized as moist or wet. This is particularly true where old man's whiskers is found in isolated moist areas surrounded by a wider landscape of dry habitat. Some examples include wet alpine meadows in Nevada [69], more mesic areas of sagebrush-dominated plains and lower foothills in the Pacific Northwest [61], moist streambanks and wet meadows in high valley and montane sites in the Intermountain West [36], and moist slopes in Colorado [58].

In grassland habitats of the northern Rockies, several studies have documented old man's whiskers's affinity for moister areas. A study of grassland phytogeography along the North Fork Flathead River in Glacier National Park, northwestern Montana, indicated that while old man's whiskers was present in most grassland habitats studied, it became increasingly more prevalent towards the mesic end of the moisture gradient in habitats dominated by rough fescue (Festuca altaica) [75]. In an Idaho fescue/bluebunch wheatgrass habitat type in western Montana, old man's whiskers is among several species that were more likely to be prominent in the moister Columbia needlegrass (Achnatherum nelsonii) phase, compared with other phases of the habitat type [96]. A study in southwestern Montana mountain grasslands, comprised of variations of an Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass habitat type, indicated greater old man's whiskers productivity where moisture availability was greatest. Mean old man's whiskers aboveground biomass productivity was 7 lb/ac (range 2-13) on a southwest exposure (typical Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass habitat type), compared with 98 lb/ac (range 45-139) on a northeast exposure (Columbia needlegrass phase of the same habitat type). It was suggested that the northeast exposure had greater moisture availability during the growing season [97]. However, old man's whiskers presence is probably reduced on sites where snowpack lasts into summer (Weaver 1970 as cited in [94]).

Conversely, where grassland habitats persist within a larger landscape of moister, often forested habitats, old man's whiskers sites are typically characterized as dry. These areas are most common along the prairie/forest interface in the midwestern and north-eastern U.S. and Canadian prairie provinces. Some examples include isolated dry grasslands in Wood Buffalo National Park, northern Alberta [109], dry prairie sites along the forest-prairie transition zone in north-central Minnesota [30], dry prairies in northern Illinois [95], xeric prairie habitats in Wisconsin [37], and "dry habitats" in Michigan [123]. A similar situation may be found in western North America where dry, grassy isolates occur within a larger, moister forested matrix. For instance, Franklin and Dyrness [48] noted the presence of old man's whiskers on steep, south-facing slopes in the Olympic Mountains, northwestern Washington.

In some areas, old man's whiskers may occur locally within a relatively wide range of moisture regimes. Lackschewitz [81] indicated that old man's whiskers occurs on sites that are mesic (adequate moisture during all or most of the growing season, but rarely if ever flooded) to meso-xeric (moisture abundant in the early growing season but dry later on) sites in west-central Montana. According to Klinkenberg [73] old man's whiskers can be found within dry to mesic grasslands, meadows, rocky slopes and open forests in the steppe, montane and subalpine zones of British Columbia. Lloyd and others [85] indicated that old man's whiskers is found from xeric to subhydric soil moisture regimes within the bunch grass, Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca), and montane spruce (Picea spp.) zones in the Kamloops Forest Region, southern British Columbia.

Soils: Although as of this writing (2006) there is no comprehensive information on old man's whiskers soil affinities, it appears from several sources that old man's whiskers occurs on a wide variety of soils. For example, it is found on heavy clay soils in northern Nevada [69], as well as moist, well-drained soils in the Uinta Basin of northeastern Utah [51].

SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:
Although research describing the relative benefit to old man's whiskers provided by fire-caused disturbance appears ambiguous (see Fire Effects), several studies suggest old man's whiskers presence may be enhanced by other types of disturbance. Bramble-Brodahl [28] classified the sagebrush-grass vegetation of the Gros Ventre District of the Bridger-Teton National Forest. In the mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue-old man's whiskers habitat type, old man's whiskers was among species said to increase with disturbance. In the mountain big sagebrush/needle-and-thread grass-old man's whiskers habitat type, old man's whiskers was among species said to increase with disturbance on wetter sites [28]. Redmann and Schwartz [103] studied the dry grassland vegetation of Wood Buffalo National Park, Alberta. Sampling at 4 paired sites indicated that old man's whiskers had greater presence on sites disturbed by "compaction and erosion", compared with undisturbed sites [103]. A study of the effects of pocket gopher disturbance on shortgrass prairie forbs indicated that old man's whiskers benefits from small-scale disturbance. Comparisons of undisturbed habitat and habitat disturbed by pocket gopher burrowing indicated that old man's whiskers seedling establishment and growth were greater on pocket gopher mounds [88].

Since old man's whiskers seems to benefit from disturbance, it is most likely to be found in association with early-successional rather than late-successional communities. Bunting and others [31] provided some support for this idea in a study of the western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis)/mountain big sagebrush mosaic of the South Fork Owyhee River, southwestern Idaho. Old man's whiskers was among several forb species associated primarily with early-successional grassland and sagebrush steppe within this mosaic. These species were not typically found in late-successional juniper (Juniperus spp.) woodland communities [31].

SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:
Old man's whiskers phenology may vary according to site conditions. A study of variation in plant seasonal development on a southwestern Montana mountain grassland site showed that old man's whiskers phenological development initiated earlier and proceeded more rapidly, on average, on a southwest exposure compared with a northeast exposure [97]. Hitchcock and Cronquist [61] indicated that flowering occurred from April to early August in the Pacific Northwest, depending on elevation.

Some examples of flowering phenology from across old man's whiskers's North American range are:

Curtis [37] indicated that old man's whiskers was among the earliest plants to flower on xeric prairie sites in Wisconsin.

The following old man's whiskers flowering data were collected over 6 seasons near Woodworth, central North Dakota [33].

The following old man's whiskers flowering data were collected over 13 seasons at Swift Current, southwestern Saskatchewan [29].

FIRE ECOLOGY

• FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS
• POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY

Fire regimes: As of this writing (2006) there is very little published information that specifically addresses fire regime characteristics that might influence old man's whiskers productivity or distribution. Limited research has suggested that factors such as fire intensity [7] or season [6] may be important (see Fire Effects), but these few studies are too limited in number and scope to provide much clarity or certainty about their effect.

There is also no published information, as of this writing (2006), that indicates the importance of fire return interval for old man's whiskers productivity or distribution. However, it may be inferred from studies of fire regimes in plant communities and ecosystems where old man's whiskers can be found, that old man's whiskers seems to occur where fire return intervals are relatively short. See the following table, which provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where old man's whiskers may occur.Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes"

FIRE EFFECTS

• IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT
• PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE
• FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Schwecke and Hann [110] described a monitoring program that tracked the effects of prescribed burning on vegetation in a Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca)/rough fescue habitat type in western Montana. Their postfire observations suggest no negative effect of fire. Within sampling plots, individual plants (quantity not provided) were marked for monitoring prior to burning. Following both spring and fall burning, there was 0% mortality among the old man's whiskers plants that were monitored. Burn conditions were described (see [110]). The publication provides no qualitative description of direct fire effects on individual plants and no explanation for the lack of fire-caused mortality.

PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE:
Several studies have documented postfire response in old man's whiskers populations. These responses suggest that, at least at the population level, fire may cause a positive response, a negative response, or no net effect. At the plant level, there is no published information on causes of postfire population responses. For instance, do old man's whiskers plants sprout from rhizomes or caudices in response to fire damage? To what extent do old man's whiskers seedlings establish in the postfire environment? More research is needed to answer these and other questions relevant to the fire ecology of old man's whiskers.

DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:
Several studies indicate that old man's whiskers populations may increase following fire. Bailey and Anderson [14] reported that old man's whiskers was among several perennial forbs that "responded quickly" following prescribed burning in rough fescue-porcupine grass (Hesperostipa spartea) grasslands in central Alberta, but no data or further description were provided. Bork and others [27] reported that old man's whiskers increased "prominently" following prescribed burning in shrub-encroached grassland in northwestern Alberta, but again, no data or further description were provided.

Bork and others [26] examined vegetation response following a December wildfire that burned in rough fescue-Parry oatgrass (Danthonia parryi) grassland in southwestern Alberta. No preburn data were collected. Estimated June mean canopy cover of old man's whiskers in the interior of the burned area was 1.6% and 2.2% in postfire years 1 and 2, respectively. Similar estimates were 0.1% and 0.3% along the perimeter of the burned area, and adjacent unburned plots contained no old man's whiskers. Estimated mean 1- and 2-year postfire litter cover was 11.2% and 55.4% in the interior of the burned area, 39.6% and 76.3% along the perimeter of the burned area, and 91.7% and 97.9% in the adjacent unburned plots [26]. Although not discussed by the authors, old man's whiskers cover following the fire may have been related to litter consumption.

Other research has documented variable responses to burning, perhaps due to season of burning or fire intensity. For example, Archibold and others [6] conducted an experiment on a plains rough fescue (Festuca altaica spp. hallii) prairie in south-central Saskatchewan, whose results suggested a positive response in old man's whiskers density after spring and summer burning, but a decrease after fall burning. Average old man's whiskers density at the end of the 2nd growing season (>1 year after burning) was 0.7 stems per meter in the control plot, compared with 9.3 and 11.7 stems per meter in the spring burn and summer burn plots, respectively. However, old man's whiskers was absent from the fall burn plot. No prefire vegetation data were recorded [6].

Another study documenting a variable response to burning suggests that postfire old man's whiskers production may have been related to fire intensity. Armour and others [7] conducted an experiment examining the effects of fire intensity on postfire vegetation response over 3 postfire years in northern Idaho ponderosa pine stands. Fire intensity (kcal/m-s) was calculated as the product of rate of spread, fuel consumed per unit area, and heat content of wood (450 cal/g). In general, old man's whiskers was more common on low-intensity burn sites than on either high-intensity or unburned sites, with mean frequency 2 to 4 times greater on low intensity burn sites than on the other 2 site types. Mean canopy coverage and mean frequency (averaged across 3 postfire years) were significantly (p<0.1) greater on low intensity burn sites, compared with either high intensity or unburned sites.

Other studies have shown an apparent decrease in old man's whiskers production due to fire. Walhof [125] compared burned and unburned big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) communities at several sites in southwestern Montana. On a site that had burned on October 26, 1987 and where vegetation was sampled in July 1995, average old man's whiskers canopy coverage and frequency were significantly (p<0.05) lower (3% and 17%, respectively), compared with paired unburned control plots (17.5% and 63%, respectively). Site characteristics and burn conditions are provided in [125].

McGee [89] described effects of prescribed burning on a big sagebrush ecosystem in northwestern Wyoming. Vegetation was sampled on plots encompassing a spring (6/3/74) prescribed fire, a fall (8/27/74) prescribed fire, and an adjacent unburned control area. The spring burn resulted in "a mosaic of burned patches ranging from completely burned, to partially burned, to unburned." In the fall burn, "all living and dead vegetation was consumed." Vegetation sampling took place during summers of 1974, 1975, and 1976. The table below summarizes postfire sampling data from this study. Old man's whiskers cover and frequency data from 1974 are postfire for the spring burn, but prefire for the fall burn. Data are means from 40 to 50 tenth-hectare quadrats.

These data strongly suggest that old man's whiskers presence was diminished by both fire treatments.

Another study demonstrated no net effect of fire on old man's whiskers populations. Menke and Muir [92] studied the effects of fire on a grassland community in the Snake River Canyon, southwestern Idaho. Mean prefire cover and 1- and 2-year postfire cover of old man's whiskers were not significantly (p<0.05) different within either the burned or unburned plots, and there was no significant difference (p = 0.70) in magnitude and direction of year-to-year changes between burned and unburned areas [92].

The following Research Project Summary provides information on prescribed fire use and postfire response of many plant species, including old man's whiskers:

Understory recovery after low- and high-intensity fires in northern Idaho ponderosa pine forests

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
As of this writing (2006) there is no published information specifically concerning the simultaneous management of old man's whiskers and fire. A variety of research (highlighted above) suggests that fire may have a positive influence, negative influence, or no net effect on particular old man's whiskers populations. Further research is needed. However, note that old man's whiskers persists within plant communities and ecosystems in North America where periodic, often frequent fire historically occurred (see Fire Regimes).

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

• IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE
• VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER USES
• OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

A smattering of published information provides little in the way of definitive conclusions about the response of old man's whiskers to domestic livestock grazing. Old man's whiskers was labeled an "increaser" in response to grazing on Montana rangelands by Mueggler and Stewart [96] and Montana State University Extension Service [80]. Daubenmire [38] considered prairie smoke a "decreaser" in response to grazing within the Idaho fescue-common snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus) habitat type in eastern Washington. In a rough fescue/bluebunch wheatgrass habitat type in western Montana, Mueggler and Stewart [96] indicated that prairie smoke increases with "light" grazing, but declines with "heavy use," particularly by domestic sheep.

While old man's whiskers is probably utilized by native ungulates, at least seasonally, it appears not to be a major forage source. Gordon [52] reported elk utilization of small amounts of old man's whiskers as winter forage (1% of diet during January-March) on lower slopes of the Elkhorn Range, west-central Montana. Old man's whiskers grazing by elk was not observed on these sites during spring (April-May). Kamps [65] recorded evidence of mule deer feeding on old man's whiskers in central Montana, mainly in spring, and Singer [114] documented spring utilization by white-tailed deer in the North Fork area of Glacier National Park, Montana. Hansen and others ([57] and references therein) ranked old man's whiskers "food value" as "poor" for elk, mule deer, pronghorn, upland game birds, waterfowl, small nongame birds, and small mammals, and "fair" for white-tailed deer in southwestern Montana.

Palatability/nutritional value: Old man's whiskers does not seem particularly palatable or nutritious for livestock. Hansen and others ([57] and references therein) ranked old man's whiskers "energy value" and "protein value" as "poor." Palatability was considered "poor" for cattle and horses and "fair" for domestic sheep ([57] and references therein). Mueggler and Stewart [96] characterized old man's whiskers as having "very poor" palatability for cattle, domestic sheep, deer, and elk. Gross energy value of old man's whiskers seeds, in average gram-calories per gram, were 4,998 for whole and 5,693 for hulled seeds [72].

Cover value: No information is available on this topic.

VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:
Dusek [45] reported small amounts of old man's whiskers (<0.5% canopy coverage during one of 3 sampling years, no occurrence in the other 2 years) growing on coal mine spoils in south-central Montana. It was not clear from this report if old man's whiskers was purposely planted at this site or had established on its own.

OTHER USES:
No information is available on this topic.

OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Susceptibility of old man's whiskers to herbicides remains unclear. Blaisdell and others ([23] and references therein) indicated that old man's whiskers is severely impacted by 2,4-D. A study by Lacey and others [79] of the effects of clopyralid or picloram on both native and nonnative forb diversity on spotted knapweed-infested rangelands in western Montana revealed no significant (p<0.05) difference in old man's whiskers density between herbicide treatments and the untreated control. Rice and Toney [104] studied the effects of herbicide treatments for controlling spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa) on native forest and grassland vegetation in west-central Montana. At a single site, old man's whiskers occurrence was not significantly (p=0.827) different in untreated plots and plots treated with either picloram or clopyralid. Scotter [111] studied the effect of several rates of picloram application on grass and forb production on a rough fescue-Junegrass grassland near Banff National Park, Alberta. Although old man's whiskers was characterized as "relatively resistant" to the effects of picloram, accompanying data suggests herbicide treatments dramatically reduced old man's whiskers production [111].

Geum triflorum: REFERENCES

1. Agee, James K. 1994. Fire and weather disturbances in terrestrial ecosystems of the eastern Cascades. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-320. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 52 p. (Everett, Richard L., assessment team leader; Eastside forest ecosystem health assessment; Hessburg, Paul F., science team leader and tech. ed., Volume III: assessment). [23656]

2. Aldon, Earl F.; Barstad, Janet F. 1987. Escudilla Mountain Research Natural Area: a study of an undisturbed montane grassland in Arizona. Natural Areas Journal. 7(3): 107-117. [40109]

3. Allen, Eugene O. 1968. Range use, foods, condition, and productivity of white-tailed deer in Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management. 32(1): 130-141. [16331]

4. Anderson, E. William; Franzen, David L. 1983. Rough fescue in Oregon. Rangelands. 5(3): 118. [30466]

5. Anderson, Roger C.; Schelfhout, Stephen. 1980. Phenological patterns among tallgrass prairie plants and their implications for pollinator competition. The American Midland Naturalist. 104(2): 253-263. [60672]

6. Archibold, O. W.; Ripley, E. A.; Delanoy, L. 2003. Effects of season of burning on the microenvironment of fescue prairie in central Saskatchewan. Canadian Field Naturalist. 117(2): 257-266. [48371]

7. Armour, Charles D.; Bunting, Stephen C.; Neuenschwander, Leon F. 1984. Fire intensity effects on the understory in ponderosa pine forests. Journal of Range Management. 37(1): 44-48. [6618]

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