Symphyotrichum laeve
|
|
 |
| |
© 2005 Robert Sivinski |
Introductory
SPECIES: Symphyotrichum laeve
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Symphyotrichum laeve. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/forb/symlae/all.html [].
ABBREVIATION :
SYMLAE
NRCS PLANT CODE :
SYLA3
COMMON NAMES :
smooth blue aster
purple aster
smooth blue American-aster
smooth aster
TAXONOMY :
The accepted scientific name for smooth blue aster is Symphyotrichum
laeve (L.) A.& D. Löve. Recognized varieties are as follows [55,56]:
Symphyotrichum laeve var. concinnus (Willd.) Nesom
Symphyotrichum laeve var. geyeri (Gray) Nesom
Symphyotrichum laeve var. laeve
Symphyotrichum laeve var. purpuratus (Nees) Nesom
SYNONYMS :
Species name―
Aster laevis L. [21,22,40,53]
Infrataxa―
Aster laevis var. concinnus (Willd.) House [21,22,40,53]
=Symphyotrichum laeve var. concinnus (Willd.) Nesom [55,56]
Aster laevis var. geyeri Gray [21,22,40,53]
=Symphyotrichum laeve var. geyeri (Gray) Nesom [55,56]
Aster laevis var. guadalupensis A.G. Jones [21,22,40,53]
=Symphyotrichum laeve var. geyeri (Gray) Nesom [55,56]
Aster laevis var. laevis [21,22,40,53]
=Symphyotrichum laeve var. laeve [55,56]
Aster laevis var. purpuratus (Nees) A.G. Jones [21,22,40,53]
=Symphyotrichum laeve var. purpuratus (Nees) Nesom [55,56]
LIFE FORM :
Forb
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
None
OTHER STATUS :
Information on state-level protected status of plants in the United States
is available at Plants Database.
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Symphyotrichum laeve
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Smooth blue aster is widely distributed in the United States
and Canada from the Atlantic Coast to the eastern slopes of the Cascade
Range, south to New Mexico, Texas, and Georgia [19,40,43]. In eastern
North America, S. l. var. laeve is the most common. This variety intergrades
in the Great Plains with S. l. var. geyeri. S. l. var. geyeri's distribution
continues through the mountain states to Yukon Territory and British Columbia,
eastern Washington and Oregon, south through Utah to New Mexico and Texas [19].
It is cultivated in Hawaii [54]. S. l. var. coccinnus occurs in Georgia,
North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia [50].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES12 Longleaf - slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
STATES :
AL AZ CO CT DE GA HI ID IL IN
IA KS KY LA ME MD MA MI MN MO
MT NE NV NH NJ NM NY NC ND OH
OK OR PA RI SC SD TN TX UT VT
VA WA WV WI WY AB BC MB NB NF
NS ON PE PQ SK YT
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
2 Cascade Mountains
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K050 Fescue - wheatgrass
K051 Wheatgrass - bluegrass
K056 Wheatgrass - needlegrass shrubsteppe
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama - needlegrass - wheatgrass
K065 Grama - buffalograss
K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass
K067 Wheatgrass - bluestem - needlegrass
K068 Wheatgrass - grama - buffalograss
K069 Bluestem - grama prairie
K070 Sandsage - bluestem prairie
K074 Bluestem prairie
K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie
K081 Oak savanna
K082 Mosaic of K074 and K100
K084 Cross Timbers
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K099 Maple - basswood forest
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K102 Beech - maple forest
K103 Mixed mesophytic forest
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K106 Northern hardwoods
K107 Northern hardwoods - fir forest
K108 Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
K109 Transition between K104 and K106
K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
1 Jack pine
14 Northern pin oak
15 Red pine
16 Aspen
18 Paper birch
19 Gray birch - red maple
20 White pine - northern red oak - red maple
21 Eastern white pine
25 Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
26 Sugar maple - basswood
27 Sugar maple
42 Bur oak
44 Chestnut oak
46 Eastern redcedar
52 White oak - black oak - northern red oak
53 White oak
70 Longleaf pine
75 Shortleaf pine
78 Virginia pine - oak
79 Virginia pine
83 Longleaf pine - slash pine
84 Slash pine
237 Interior ponderosa pine
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Smooth blue aster is a component of many types of plant associations,
most notably of mixed prairie types such as needlegrass (Stipa comata, S.
spartea)-blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) and wheatgrass (Elymus
lanceolatus, Pascopyrum smithii)-junegrass (Koeleria cristata) types
[10].
Smooth blue aster is an understory dominant or a component in a number of
quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) community types, including a quaking
aspen-Missouri gooseberry (Ribes missouriense)-roughleaf ricegrass
(Oryzopsis asperifolia)-smooth blue aster community type [39]. It also
occurs as an understory dominant in a quaking aspen-Bigelow ligularia
(Ligularia bigelovii) community type [34]. Smooth blue aster is a leading
dominant in a smooth blue aster-western yarrow (Achillea millefolium v.
lanulosa) plant association found in openings in quaking aspen parklands
[29].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Symphyotrichum laeve
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
White-tailed deer will graze smooth blue aster, selecting it over other
available forbs [14].
PALATABILITY :
Smooth blue aster is palatable to white-tailed deer and livestock [14,47].
It is likely that it is palatable to other species as well, but
documentation is not available.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Smooth blue aster has high nutritional value, decreasing with maturation.
Nutritional values for aerial portions are as follows [7]:
digestible protein (%) cellulose (%) digestibility(%)
leaf stage 11.6 27.2 77.1
heading 5.9 28.8 55.2
seed ripening 5.2 31.2 61.8
COVER VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Direct seeding of smooth blue aster was successful in establishing plants
along highway margins for prairie restoration [32]. Smooth blue aster is
recommended in seedings and plantings for rehabilitation or restoration
of native mixed-grass and tallgrass prairies [31,32,49].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
NO-ENTRY
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
In a study of prairie regeneration in which herbicides were applied to
control quackgrass (Agropyron repens), smooth blue aster failed to establish
in plantings treated with either glyphosate or dichlobenil [49].
Picloram, tebuthiuron, and hexazinone all suppressed growth of smooth
aster, either alone or in combination. Applied alone, 2,4,D-E did not
suppress smooth blue aster growth [31].
Grazing by deer does not appear to affect survival of established plants
or seedlings, as long as only the stem tips are removed. Most plants
damaged by deer responded with vigorous growth the following season
[14]. Weaver and Hansen [47] classify smooth blue aster as a decreaser under
grazing.
Plants grown under nursery conditions had excellent rates of survival
when planted in the field. Nursery stock was planted at a rate of 3.5
ounces of seed per 100 square feet (11 gm/sq m), and resulted in a
harvest of 9.5 pounds of seed per 100 square feet (0.5 kg/sq m) [46].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Symphyotrichum laeve
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Smooth blue aster is a moderately tall (12 to 40 inches [30 -100 cm]) native
perennial forb, with a stout rhizome and branching caudex. There are
one to several erect stems. The fruit is a one-seeded achene
[14,19,36].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Hemicryptophyte
Geophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Smooth blue aster reproduces well from seed. Seeds do not require either
scarification or stratification [20,32]. Greenhouse germination trials
showed that, without stratification, initial germination occurs at 7
days, and peak germination occurs at 20 days [32]. Seed banking is not
apparent; soil samples collected in August (probably before seed
release) contained no germinable smooth blue aster seeds [37].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Smooth blue aster occurs on a wide variety of sites, including moist, sandy
soil in woods, dry woods, and open areas, and mesic and dry-mesic
prairies [30,40]. Cover and frequency of smooth blue aster is highest on
sites with high light intensities, though it occurs on more shaded sites
as well [41]. It usually sustains higher populations on wetter, more
poorly drained glacial till soils in eastern Illinois and western
Indiana [6]. In Michigan, however, Beaufait [4] reported that although
smooth blue aster occurs on mesic and transitional sites, it is more likely
to be encountered on the more xeric sites.
Elevation occurrence data from selected western states is as follows
[12]:
feet meters
Utah 5,700 - 8,600 1,737 - 2,621
Colorado 5,000 - 9,300 1,524 - 2,835
Wyoming 3,700 - 7,600 1,128 - 2,316
Montana 2,300 - 6,000 701 - 1,829
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Thirty years after study plots had been retired from heavy grazing,
smooth blue aster was found only on the edges of the sites nearest
undisturbed native prairie [18]. Smooth blue aster is found on roadsides and
other previously disturbed areas but is probably not an initial
colonizer.
Smooth blue aster is probably not tolerant of deep shade but will tolerate
light or intermittent shade.
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Smooth blue aster blooms from August to October [11]. The lowermost leaves
are early deciduous; the remaining leaves are dropped after frost
top-kills the plant [19].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Symphyotrichum laeve
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Smooth blue aster sprouts from the rhizome after being top-killed by fire.
It occurs in a number of plant associations that have frequent fire
regimes. Presumably, it is adapted to fire, though no specific
information is available in the literature.
In general, forbs are more adversely affected by fires that occur later
in the spring. Usually cover is reduced, while overall composition
remains little affected. Forbs are much less affected by dormant-season
fires than by spring fires [8].
FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Rhizomatous herb, rhizome in soil
Ground residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Symphyotrichum laeve
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Fire top-kills smooth blue aster.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Most reports on the effects of fire in communities occupied by smooth
aster are inconclusive as to its response [1,17]. The number of leaves
per individual plant increased following a late spring prescribed fire,
with no change in the number of flowers or fruit per individual for
either the early spring or late spring prescribed fires [27].
Prescribed spring fires had variable effects on flowering in smooth
aster, depending on habitat. Flowering was inhibited on dry-mesic
prairie site on an undisturbed south-facing slope and on a highly
disturbed, level, mesic prairie site. Flowering was stimulated on
sloping and level mesic undisturbed prairie sites [33]. Three years
after a wildfire in jack pine (Pinus banksiana) stands, smooth blue
aster was an important component of the regenerating plots.
These sites had standing dead trees, which indicates that there was probably a
substantial loss of crown shading [2].
Smooth blue aster was listed as a decreaser under an annual early spring
burning regime, and also after a spring wildfire [3,44]. Scheiner [37]
reported the presence of smooth blue aster on sites that had recently
undergone prescribed burns, as well as on older postfire seral sites.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
NO-ENTRY
References: Symphyotrichum laeve
1. Abrams, Marc D.; Dickmann, Donald I. 1984. Floristic composition before and after prescribed fire on a jack pine clear-cut site in northern lower Michigan. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 14: 746-749. [7236]
2. Abrams, Marc D.; Sprugel, Douglas G.; Dickmann, Donald I. 1985. Multiple successional pathways on recently disturbed jack pine sites in Michigan. Forest Ecology and Management. 10: 31-48. [7237]
3. Anderson, Howard G.; Bailey, Arthur W. 1980. Effects of annual burning on grassland in the aspen parkland of east-central Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany. 58: 985-996. [3499]
4. Beaufait, W. R.; Brown, R. T. 1962. Phytogeography of a representative outwash plain jack pine site. Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts & Letters. 47: 201-209. [7239]
5. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
6. Betz, Robert F.; Lamp, Herbert F. 1989. Species composition of old settler silt-loam prairies. In: Bragg, Thomas B.; Stubbendieck, James, eds. Prairie pioneers: ecology, history and culture: Proceedings, 11th North American prairie conference; 1988 August 7-11; Lincoln, NE. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska: 33-39. [14016]
7. Bezeau, L. M.; Johnston, A. 1962. In vitro digestibility of range forage plants of the Festuca scabrella association. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 42: 692-697. [441]
8. Bragg, Thomas B. 1991. Implications for long-term prairie management from seasonal burning of loess hill and tallgrass prairie. In: Nodvin, Stephen C.; Waldrop, Thomas A., eds. Fire and the environment: ecological and cultural perspectives: Proceedings of an international symposium; 1990 March 20-24; Knoxville, TN. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-69. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 34-44. [16631]
9. Brown, Lauren. 1985. The Audubon Society nature guides: Grasslands. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 606 p. [4561]
10. Coupland, Robert T. 1950. Ecology of mixed prairie in Canada. Ecological Monographs. 20(4): 271-315. [700]
11. Diekelmann, John; Howell, Evelyn A.; Harrington, John. 1986. An approach to residential landscaping with prairie. In: Clambey, Gary K.; Pemble, Richard H., eds. The prairie: past, present and future: Proceedings, 9th North American prairie conference; 1984 July 29 - August 1; Moorhead, MN. Fargo, ND: Tri-College University Center for Environmental Studies: 242-248. [3587]
12. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]
13. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
14. Englund, Judy Voigt; Meyer, William J. 1986. The impact of deer on 24 species of prairie forbs. In: Clambey, Gary K.; Pemble, Richard H., eds. The prairie: past, present and future: Proceedings, 9th North American prairie conference; 1984 July 29 - August 1; Moorhead, MN. Fargo, ND: Tri-College University Center for Environmental Studies: 210-212. [3575]
15. Fernald, Merritt Lyndon. 1950. Gray's manual of botany. [Corrections supplied by R. C. Rollins]. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press. 1632 p. (Dudley, Theodore R., gen. ed.; Biosystematics, Floristic & Phylogeny Series; vol. 2) [14935]
16. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
17. Gibson, David J. 1989. Hulbert's study of factors effecting botanical composition of tallgrass prairie. In: Bragg, Thomas B.; Stubbendieck, James, eds. Prairie pioneers: ecology, history and culture: Proceedings, 11th North American prairie conference; 1988 August 7-11; Lincoln, NE. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska: 115-133. [14029]
18. Glenn-Lewin, David C. 1980. The individualistic nature of plant community development. Vegetatio. 43: 141-146. [7857]
19. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1392 p. [1603]
20. Greene, H. C.; Curtis, J. T. 1950. Germination studies of Wisconsin prairie plants. The American Midland Naturalist. 43(1): 186-194. [4086]
21. Jones, Almut G. 1981. Aster laevis (Asteraceae) new for Texas, a significant range extension and a new variety. SIDA-Contributions to Botany. 9(2): 172-175. [20039]
22. Kartesz, John T.; Kartesz, Rosemarie. 1980. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. Volume II: The biota of North America. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press; in confederation with Anne H. Lindsey and C. Richie Bell, North Carolina Botanical Garden. 500 p. [6954]
23. Kebart, Karen K.; Anderson, Roger C. 1987. Phenological and climatic patterns in three tallgrass prairies. The Southwestern Naturalist. 32(1): 29-37. [5438]
24. Kittredge, J., Jr. 1934. Evidence of the rate of forest succession on Star Island, Minnesota. Ecology. 15(1): 24-35. [10102]
25. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
26. Love, Askell; Love, Doris. 1954. Vegetation of a prairie marsh. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 81(1): 16-34. [18103]
27. Lovell, David L.; Henderson, Richard A.; Howell, Evelyn A. 1983. The response of forb species to seasonal timing of prescribed burns in remnant Wisconsin prairies. In: Brewer, Richard, ed. Proceedings of the eighth North American prairie conference; 1982 August 1-4; Kalamazoo, MI. Kalamazoo, MI: Western Michigan University, Department of Biology: 11-15. [3115]
28. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
29. Lynch, Daniel. 1955. Ecology of the aspen groveland in Glacier County, Montana. Ecological Monographs. 25(4): 321-344. [950]
30. Mohlenbrock, Robert H. 1986. (Revised edition). Guide to the vascular flora of Illinois. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. 507 p. [17383]
31. Moyer, J. R.; Smoliak, S. 1987. Shrubby cinquefoil control changes range forage production. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 67: 727-734. [3894]
32. Nuzzo, Victoria. 1978. Propagation and planting of prairie forbs and grasses in southern Wisconsin. In: Glenn-Lewin, David C.; Landers, Roger Q., Jr., eds. Proceedings, 5th Midwest prairie conference; 1976 August 22-24; Ames, IA. Ames, IA: Iowa State University: 182-189. [3379]
33. Pemble, R. H.; Van Amburg, G. L.; Mattson, Lyle. 1981. Intraspecific variation in flowering activity following a spring burn on a northwestern Minnesota prairie. In: Stuckey, Ronald L.; Reese, Karen J., eds. The prairie peninsula--in the "shadow" of Transeau: Proceedings, 6th North American prairie conference; 1978 August 12-17; Columbus, OH. Ohio Biological Survey: Biological Notes No. 15. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, College of Biological Sciences: 235-240. [3435]
34. Powell, David C. 1988. Aspen community types of the Pike and San Isabel National Forests in south-central Colorado. R2-ECOL-88-01. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region. 254 p. [15285]
35. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
36. Radford, Albert E.; Ahles, Harry E.; Bell, C. Ritchie. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press. 1183 p. [7606]
37. Scheiner, Samuel M. 1988. The seed bank and above-ground vegetation in an upland pine-hardwood succession. Michigan Botanist. 27(4): 99-106. [12396]
38. Semple, John C.; Chmielewski, Jerry G.; Lane, Meredith A. 1989. Chromosome number determinations in fam. Compositae, tribe Astereae. 3. Additional counts and comments on generic limits and ancestral... Rhodora. 91(868): 296-314. [20038]
39. Severson, Kieth E.; Thilenius, John F. 1976. Classification of quaking aspen stands in the Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains. Res. Pap. RM-166. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 24 p. [2111]
40. Seymour, Frank Conkling. 1982. The flora of New England. 2d ed. Phytologia Memoirs 5. Plainfield, NJ: Harold N. Moldenke and Alma L. Moldenke. 611 p. [7604]
41. Shirley, Hardy L. 1932. Light intensity in relation to plant growth in a virgin Norway pine forest. Journal of Agricultural Research. 44: 227-244. [10360]
42. Stallard, Harvey. 1929. Secondary succession in the climax forest formations of northern Minnesota. Ecology. 10(4): 476-547. [3808]
43. Stubbendieck, James. 1988. Historical development of native vegetation on the Great Plains. In: Mitchell, John E, ed. Impacts of the Conservation Reserve Program in the Great Plains; 1987 September 16-18; Denver, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-158. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 21-28. [5142]
44. Swan, Frederick R., Jr. 1970. Post-fire response of four plant communities in south-central New York state. Ecology. 51(6): 1074-1082. [3446]
45. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2007. PLANTS Database, [Online]. Available: https://plants.usda.gov
/. [34262]
46. Wallace, Virginia K.; Pequignot, Stewart; Yoder, William. 1986. The role of state forest nurseries in prairie plant propagation. In: Clambey, Gary K.; Pemble, Richard H., eds. The prairie: past, present and future: Proceedings of the ninth North American prairie conference; 1984 July 29 - August 1; Moorhead, MN. Fargo, ND: Tri-College University Center for Environmental Studies: 201-203. [3573]
47. Weaver, J. E.; Hansen, W. W. 1941. Native midwestern pastures; their origin, composition and degeneration. University of Nebraska Conservation Bulletin 22. 93 p. [20777]
48. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]
49. Woehler, Eugene E.; Martin, Mark A. 1978. Establishment of prairie grasses and forbs with the use of herbicides. In: Glenn-Lewin, David C.; Landers, Roger Q., Jr., eds. Proceedings, 5th Midwest prairie conference; 1976 August 22-24; Ames, IA. Ames, IA: Iowa State University: 131-138. [3367]
50. Wofford, B. Eugene. 1989. Guide to the vascular plants of the Blue Ridge. Athens, GA: The University of Georgia Press. 384 p. [12908]
51. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. 50 CFR Part 17: Plant taxa for listing as endangered or threatened species; notice of review--September 30, 1993. Federal Register. 58(188): 51144-51190. [23816]
52. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Survey. [n.d.]. NP Flora [Data base]. Davis, CA: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Survey. [23119]
53. Kartesz, John T. 1994. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. Volume II--thesaurus. 2nd ed. Portland, OR: Timber Press. 816 p. [23878]
54. St. John, Harold. 1973. List and summary of the flowering plants in the Hawaiian islands. Hong Kong: Cathay Press Limited. 519 p. [25354]
FEIS Home Page
