Fire Effects Information System (FEIS)

FEIS Home Page

Bromus carinatus

• INTRODUCTORY
• DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
• BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• FIRE ECOLOGY
• FIRE EFFECTS
• MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
• REFERENCES

INTRODUCTORY

• AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION
• FEIS ABBREVIATION
• SYNONYMS
• NRCS PLANT CODE
• COMMON NAMES
• TAXONOMY
• LIFE FORM
• FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS
• OTHER STATUS

California brome. Photos courtesy of Hastings Natural History Reservation.

Bromus carinatus var. carinatus, California brome
Bromus carinatus var. marginatus (Nees) C.L. Hitchc. ex Scoggar, mountain brome

Seaside brome (B. maritimus) and Great Basin brome (B. polyanthus) were formerly considered synonyms of Bromus carinatus but are now considered separate species [20].

In this review, "Bromus carinatus" refers to the species as a whole. "California brome" refers to Bromus carinatus var. carinatus and "mountain brome" refers to Bromus carinatus var. marginatus.

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE

• GENERAL DISTRIBUTION

• ECOSYSTEMS

• STATES/PROVINCES

• BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS

• KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS

• SAF COVER TYPES

• SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES

• HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES

California brome occurs throughout the general distribution of Bromus carinatus and also in Alaska [114,277]. It is nonnative in Europe [277]. Mountain brome also occurs throughout the general distribution of Bromus carinatus, and in south-central Saskatchewan [190] and South Dakota [117,137,281]. Mountain brome is introduced in Ontario, Maine, New York, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut [135].

Bromus carinatus occurs in the following vegetation types. Although Bromus carinatus is widespread, it is uncommon in some vegetation types and is not documented in every ecosystem or plant community in which it may occur. Although the list of vegetation types below is very broad, Bromus carinatus may occur in some types that are not listed below.

California brome vegetation classifications:
In addition to those listed above for Bromus carinatus, California brome also occurs in the following vegetation types:

Mountain brome vegetation classifications:
In addition to those listed above for Bromus carinatus, mountain brome also occurs in the following vegetation types:

California brome is listed as a dominant species in the following vegetation classifications:

United States ―
California:

• coastal prairie [110]

• Douglas-fir/ninebark (Pseudotsuga menziesii/Physocarpus malvaceus)/California brome habitat type in central Idaho [242]

• grand fir/mountain maple (Abies grandis/Acer glabrum)/California brome habitat type in central Idaho [243]

• Douglas-fir/pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens)/California brome habitat type in central Idaho [244]

• Douglas-fir/white spiraea (Spiraea betulifolia)/California brome habitat type in central Idaho [245]

• snowfield big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. spiciformis)/California brome habitat type in southern Idaho, elevation 7,000-9,500 feet (2,100-2,900 m) [116]

• parsnipflower buckwheat (Eriogonum heracleoides)-California brome community in southeast Idaho (a seral community within the mountain big sagebrush-mountain snowberry/Idaho fescue (Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana-Symphoricarpos oreophilus/Festuca idahoensis) habitat type)

• one-flower helianthella (Helianthella uniflora)-California brome community in southeast Idaho (a seral community within the mountain big sagebrush-mountain snowberry/Idaho fescue habitat type)

• pioneer violet (Viola glabella)-California brome community in southeast Idaho (a seral community within the mountain big sagebrush-mountain snowberry/Idaho fescue habitat type)

• timber milkvetch (Astragalus miser)-California brome community in southeast Idaho (a seral community within the mountain big sagebrush-mountain snowberry/Idaho fescue habitat type) [223]

• Douglas-fir/mountain maple/California brome community type (ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) phase) in central Idaho [241]

• quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)/California brome community type in eastern Idaho and western Wyoming, west of the crest of the Wind River Mountains [38]

• mountain big sagebrush-mountain snowberry/California brome community type on Humboldt National Forest, Nevada [128]

• California brome subassociation within the low sagebrush (Artemisia arbuscula) association, Utah juniper series in the Lahontan Basin of western Nevada

• California brome subassociation within the longflower snowberry (Symphoricarpos longiflorus) association, singleleaf pinyon series in the southeastern Great Basin of Nevada and Utah

• California brome subassociation within the western serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) association, singleleaf pinyon series in the central Great Basin of Nevada [278]

• mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue-California brome association in the Great Basin

• mountain big sagebrush/Great Basin wildrye (Elymus cinereus)-California brome association in the northern Great Basin [179]

• mountain big sagebrush-snowberry/California brome shrubland

• mountain big sagebrush/California brome shrubland

• mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue/California brome shrubland

• quaking aspen/California brome forest [186]

• ponderosa pine/big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata)/California brome ecosystem in central Oregon between 6,000-7,200 feet (1,800-2,200 m) elevation [68]

• quaking aspen/big sagebrush/California brome ecosystem in central Oregon between 6,000-7,100 feet (1,800-2,160 m) elevation [68]

• mountain big sagebrush-mountain snowberry/California brome community type on the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest, Oregon [131]

• Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana)/California brome community in southwest Oregon below 3,000 feet (1,000 m) elevation [211]

• quaking aspen/California brome community type [185]

• quaking aspen/mountain snowberry/California brome community type [185]

• quaking aspen/western serviceberry/mountain snowberry/California brome community type [185]

• Kentucky bluegrass-Sandberg bluegrass-inland bluegrass-Richardson's needlegrass-slender wheatgrass-California brome-nodding brome (Poa pratensis-P. secunda-P. nemoralis ssp. interior-Achnatherum richardsonii-Elymus trachycaulus-Bromus carinatus- B. anomalus) grassland ecosystem in the Prince Rupert Forest Region [201]

Mountain brome ―
Mountain brome is also documented in several plant communities besides those listed for above. It occurs in mixed-conifer forest with giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) in the Sierra Nevada of California [2,32,141]. In western Texas it grows in Colorado pinyon-gray oak (Pinus edulis-Quercus grisea) woodland [115]. Mountain brome is a dominant grass in a big sagebrush-silver sagebrush (Artemisia cana) community on the Gallatin National Forest in Montana [188], in a tall larkspur (Delphinium exaltatum)-slender wheatgrass-mountain brome community on the Manti LaSal National Forest in Utah [205], and in a mesophytic upland meadow community in the Black Hills of South Dakota [109].

Mountain brome is listed as a dominant species in the following vegetation classifications:

• Utah snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus var. utahensis)-big sagebrush/mountain brome mountain brush community of the Transverse Ranges [290]

• coastal prairie [110]

• mountain big sagebrush/mountain brome-Idaho fescue community in the Sawtooth, White Cloud, Boulder, and Pioneer Mountains between 7,000 and 9,000 feet (2,100-2,700 m) elevation [222]

• subalpine fir-Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) forest subtype of Montana grasslands (dominant trees are subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), Engelmann spruce and/or whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) [191]

• snowfield big sagebrush/mountain brome-Idaho fescue habitat type in the Ruby-East Humboldt Mountains [157]

• quaking aspen/mountain snowberry association [208]

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

• GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM
• REGENERATION PROCESSES
• SITE CHARACTERISTICS
• SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
• SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT

Bromus carinatus is a cool-season, perennial bunchgrass [87,103,114,117,148,178,231,255,262]. It is sometimes described as an annual [117,190,217,289] or a biennial [110,117,190]. It is a rapid-growing and short-lived species [48,49,93,108,178,239,262,265,289]. The lifespan of Bromus carinatus is approximately 3 to 10 years, although strong self-seeding habits may allow a stand to persist longer [227,231,272]. If seeding does not occur, Bromus carinatus is likely to be replaced by longer-lived species [178].

Bromus carinatus plants are tall and erect, growing from 1 to 4 feet (30-122 cm) or more [103,117,200,204,220,255,272,277]. The culms are coarse, stout, and solitary or tufted [112,170,180,190,220,255,265,272,277]. Leaf blades are coarse, flat (or rarely folded), broad, and hairy. They range from 6 to 16 inches (15-40 cm) long and 0.08 to 0.6 inch wide [93,103,117,120,272,277,281]. Plants produce "good leafy growth" [49]. The inflorescence is a large, open, erect, narrow to pyramidal panicle, 2 to 16 inches (5-40 cm) long with stiff, spreading, or ascending branches [93,103,112,114,117,124,180,190,272]. The panicle is likely to droop at fruiting under the weight of the fruits, which are caryopses [277]. Spikelets vary from 1 to 4 per branch and are distinctly flattened, 0.6 to 2.4 inch (15-60 mm) long, with 4 to 16 flowers bearing many large, heavy, bearded seeds [93,103,114,117,124,190,272,277,281]. Lemmas are hairy on the back with a terminal awn up to 0.25 inch (6 mm) long [262,265,272].

The fibrous root system is well-branched [49,108,120,262,272]. Descriptions of root depth in mountain brome range from shallow [272] to deeply penetrating [49,120]. In the Boise River Watershed, Idaho, mountain brome belongs to a group of grasses with roots that are concentrated in the upper 1.2 inches (3 cm) of soil, from which they spread laterally and downward. It is suggested that short-lived perennial species like mountain brome penetrate only the upper ~16 inches (40 cm) of soil, whereas longer-lived perennials produce many more roots that extend to a depth of ~63 inches (160 cm) [237]. Root bisects of mountain brome plants grown in field experiments showed a large percentage of the roots contained in the upper 8 inches (20 cm) of soil, but extending as far as 35 inches (90 cm) [15]. In a greenhouse study mountain brome plants produced 4 ounces (117 g) of roots and 3 ounces (83.5 g) of tops in a 4.5-month period. This was the highest-yielding grass of 6 included in the study, although the top-root ratio was smaller than that of longer-lived, slower developing species like smooth brome (Bromus inermis) and tall fescue (Schedonorus phoenix) [48].

Pollination: Bromus carinatus is generally self pollinating [101,162].

Breeding system: In California brome, both chasmogamous and cleistogamous florets are commonly found on the same plant [114]. Open pollination facilitated by wind is most common when growing conditions are optimum [104], whereas self-pollination is often a response to stressful conditions such as overgrazing, repeated mowing [54], and fire [166]. In California brome, both types of florets may appear on the same panicle if there is an abrupt change in environmental conditions at an early stage in panicle development [104].

Seed production: Bromus carinatus produces abundant seed [101,108,170,220] unless it is severely overgrazed [180]. California brome plants may not produce seed for the first 2 to 3 years [65].

Seed dispersal: Bromus carinatus seeds are dispersed by wind [246] and, because they are awned, also presumably by animals when awns attach to hair or feathers. Mountain brome seeds are prone to shattering when ripe or during harvesting [167].

Seed banking: There is conflicting information about seed banking in California brome. Numerous authors state that California brome seed is not stored in the soil. In a greenhouse study, for example, only 1 California brome seedling emerged from the litter out of 28 soil samples taken from mixed-conifer forest in the Blue Mountains, Oregon, suggesting that California brome stores little or no seed in the soil [252]. California brome was found only in the aboveground vegetation in subalpine fir/pinegrass and Idaho fescue-bearded wheatgrass (Elymus caninus) habitats in the Gallatin Valley, Montana [51]. In a Garry oak (Quercus garryana) ecosystem in southeastern British Columbia, California brome did not form a seed bank but germinated readily when fall rains began [166]. In a field experiment in native upland prairie in the Coast Range foothills 5 miles (8 km) northwest of Corvallis, Oregon, California brome did not form a "persistent" seed bank [52].

There is, however, evidence of seed banking in California brome in several other studies. California brome was present in soil samples taken from unburned Douglas-fir/pinegrass, quaking aspen/pinegrass, and subalpine fir/thinleaf huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum) habitat types in Yellowstone National Park [51]. In a greenhouse experiment, it germinated from soil collected at 1 out of 4 Sonoran Desert locations [270]. In a native bunchgrass prairie restoration project in San Francisco, California brome was among several native plants that regenerated naturally on the restored sites. While known from other prairie locations, California brome had not been known to flower on the test site for at least 15 years, suggesting there is a bank of seeds ready to emerge if interference is reduced [196].

No information is available on seed banking in mountain brome. Further research is needed on seed banking in Bromus carinatus.

Germination: Bromus carinatus seed germinates quickly [52,166,231,239]. California brome germinates well on both bare soil and from beneath the soil surface [26,246]. Germination rates are high, often exceeding 85% [178,248]. Optimum germination for California brome in a greenhouse occurred at alternating temperatures of 86 °F (30 °C) for 6 hours and 68 °F (20 °C) for 18 hours [198]. The germination rate dropped considerably at greenhouse temperatures, which fluctuated between 50 °F and 104 °F (10 °C and 40 °C), approximating outside conditions in early spring. These results suggest that California brome germinates more slowly in the early spring months under natural conditions, and may therefore be at a disadvantage relative to other early-growing species. Percent germination for California brome is shown below [198].

In another greenhouse experiment, the optimum temperature regime for California brome germination was a daily minimum of 59 °F (15 °C) for 16 hours of darkness and a daily maximum of 77 °F (25 °C) for 8 hours of light [189]:

Mountain brome seeds require ~14 days from the date of seeding for germination [231,272]. In the San Gabriel Mountains of California, temperatures representative of the 4 seasons were simulated in a greenhouse. Mountain brome germinated best at day/night temperatures of 62/39 °F (17/4 °C) [14]. In another study, the optimum temperature range for germination in the presence of light was 68 °F to 86 °F (20-30 °C) [231].

Germination rates have been reported in the literature as follows:

In greenhouse tests, mountain brome seeds collected in the milk stage germinated at the same rate as mature seeds throughout a 58-month storage period [167]. Premilk stage seeds had the lowest viability over time of all stages of seed development (milk, dough, and mature), decreasing from 91% viability at 4 months to 50% viability at 58 months [167]. The seeds have been stored for 3 to 15 years in warehouse storage without significant loss of viability [101,133,167,231].

Seedling establishment/growth: Bromus carinatus seedlings establish easily and grow quickly [59,101,120,177,231,239,265,272]. California brome seedlings establish well in seeded subalpine meadows, upper-elevation quaking aspen openings, quaking aspen and coniferous forests, and silver sagebrush and big sagebrush sites in the Intermountain West [250]. Lantz (Lantz 1997, cited in [52]) found that seedling mortality decreased in plots with vegetation removal, suggesting that interference may be an important factor in the survival or mortality of California brome seedlings.

Plants with heavy seeds like California brome can send up shoots from greater depths compared to plants with lighter seeds. In a greenhouse study, California brome responded as well when planted 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) deep as at 0.25 inch (0.6 cm) deep, while emergence of shoots of other, lighter-seeded species was greatly reduced [198].

Shoot growth over a 28-day period under greenhouse conditions was as follows [198]:

California brome produces roots at a rapid rate immediately after germination and can successfully establish initial stands on dry sites, although they may later succumb to drought [198]. In a greenhouse study, California brome roots developed much faster over a 28-day period than several other grasses studied [198]:

Mountain brome seedlings develop a large root mass rapidly [236], and plants reach full development the year after planting [239]. Frischknecht (Frischknecht 1951, cited in [145]) found mountain brome and slender wheatgrass were the most winter hardy in the seedling stage of all grasses tested.

Asexual regeneration: California brome and mountain brome regenerate vegetatively by tillers from buds near the root crown [18,49,231].

Mountain brome grows on open slopes, grass balds, shrublands, dry to moist meadows, open ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), and quaking aspen forests in the montane and subalpine zones of the Rocky Mountains and western Great Plains [103,190]. In Alaska, it grows in "waste places," roadsides, and yards [124]. In Arizona, it grows along roadsides, in moist meadows, and on moist sites in Douglas-fir or ponderosa pine forests [126,137]. It grows on grassy slopes and rocky, open areas in Baja California [281] and on coastal prairie terraces along the northern California coast [110].

Elevation: Bromus carinatus occurs between sea level and 11,000 feet (3,400 m) throughout its range [59,109,112,114,137,137,182,219,277,286]. The results of a study in Ephraim Canyon, central Utah, suggest that California brome production increases with increasing altitude, an effect that may be related to greater precipitation and insolation at higher elevations [78]. In California, however, stands were more scattered and plant height was reduced at high elevations [220]. Elevation ranges by state/region are as follows:

Soils: Bromus carinatus is adapted to a wide variety of soil types including sands, silts, and clays [178,231,255,261,266]. California brome is most productive in moderately moist, well-developed, deep, medium-textured soils [178,255]. It can also grow in poorly drained soils [255] and in dry, shallow, and infertile soils on disturbed sites [178]. In the Intermountain West, it grows well on somewhat poorly drained clay to sandy loam soils in the 5.5 to 7.5 pH range, but is not suited to long-term cover on shallow soils without irrigation or fertilization [108]. In Oregon, it is found on well-drained sites, including stream terraces and floodplains where soils are generally derived from deep alluvial deposits of pumice or basic scoria [86]. In a mountain brush/California brome community on the Humboldt National Forest in Nevada, the mean summer soil temperature was 55 °F (13 °C) and the mean annual soil temperature was 44 °F (7 °C) [129].

Mountain brome thrives on moderately deep, fertile, moist, medium to fine-textured soils and is moderately "vigorous" on thin, infertile, coarser, fairly dry soils, especially in open communities and disturbed sites [231,272]. It tolerates soils in the pH range of 5.5 to 8.0 [236].

Salinity tolerance: Bromus carinatus is moderately tolerant of saline soils [178,197,231,250,266,272].

Moisture requirements: California brome is adapted to sites that receive mean annual precipitation of 18 inches (46 cm) or more [108]. It is only moderately drought resistant and is therefore limited to more moist sites [152,170,265]. It is moderately tolerant of flooding [197,250] but is intolerant of long periods of flooding or high water tables [178].

Mountain brome grows best in areas with 15 to 30 inches (38-76 cm) of annual precipitation [109,231,236]. It is intolerant of high water tables and early spring flooding [272]. For optimum production, the water table should not be closer than 36 inches (91 cm) [231]. Seeds, seedlings, and mature plants can tolerate only 14 days of spring flooding [231]. Drought tolerance is low to moderate [231,266,272]. In drought conditions simulated in greenhouse experiments, mountain brome lost 49.1% of its total water content before permanent wilting occurred, indicating a moderate ability to withstand drought without permanent injury. During a 6-month period of simulated severe drought, the underground parts of mountain brome remained dormant, and plants produced new shoots when water was added to the soil. After a second 6-month drought period, however, plants did not produce new shoots [15]. Root bisects of plants grown in field experiments showed a large percentage of the roots contained in the upper 8 inches (20 cm) of soil, but extending as far as 35 inches (90 cm), suggesting that the roots can extend to sufficient depths to enable the plant to withstand drought [15].

Mountain brome has been referred to as a "snow increaser," appearing to grow well on sites with late-melting snow [275]. On an Idaho fescue grassland northeast of Bozeman, Montana, mountain brome was more abundant on sites with deep and therefore late-melting snow than on earlier-melting sites [274]. In the Limestone District of the Black Hills, South Dakota, mountain brome is a dominant plant in upland meadow communities where the snowpack remains in place into late spring, providing ample soil moisture [109].

Temperature: California brome is adapted to sites where the minimum winter temperature is above -40 °F (-40 °C). It has only fair heat tolerance [108].

Mountain brome is moderately shade tolerant [126], and thrives on sites which are partially shaded [231] including moderately dense quaking aspen stands [272] and open mixed-conifer forest [287]. It also grows in open, unshaded sites [111] but was absent from heavily shaded sites in the Wallowa Mountains of northeastern Oregon [287]. Mountain brome occurs in big sagebrush and lodgepole pine communities in Teton County, Wyoming. Both communities are successional communities in the Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir habitat type [28]. In the lodgepole pine communities, it made up 5% of the total vegetation composition in mature stands, and 10% in stands opened by fire and sunny sites in nearly mature stands [28].

It often takes 2 years for California brome to establish, mature, and flower [133], although it can flower the 1st growing season [114,178,277]. Flowering times reported for California brome and mountain brome vary by region:

Costello and Price [61] provide more detailed phenological data for California brome on the Wasatch Plateau in central Utah. The following dates are 9-year averages:

The actual dates of each growth stage were variable across the 9-year study period [61]:

FIRE ECOLOGY

• FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS
• POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY

Seedling establishment after a fire is likely related to the amount of viable seed available in the seed bank or off site. Because there is conflicting information in the literature about seed banking in Bromus carinatus [51,52,166,196,270] (see Seed banking), the relationship between seed banking and regeneration after fire is unclear. One author reports that California brome seed was not present in soil samples collected from burned sites in Douglas-fir/pinegrass, quaking aspen/pinegrass, and subalpine fir/thinleaf huckleberry habitat types in Yellowstone National Park [51]. Seed from off-site sources may therefore be important in postfire recolonization. Such seeds are likely transported into a burned area by animals and/or wind. Both California brome and mountain brome produce abundant seed [108,170,180], "vigorous" seedlings [59,120,177,231,265], and grow in open, unshaded sites [111,242,292] and on bare soil [246]. All of these characteristics may increase the likelihood of establishment after a fire.

Fire regimes: Bromus carinatus occurs in many different ecosystems and plant communities. It is apparently most prevalent in open-canopy forests, woodlands, shrublands, and grasslands. Fire plays an important role in many plant communities where Bromus carinatus is a dominant or common understory species. Fire regimes in some of the most important communities are described briefly below:

Ponderosa pine forests: Ponderosa pine forests are generally maintained by frequent, nonlethal, understory fire at mean intervals ranging from 1 to 50 years. Historically, fire-maintained ponderosa pine forests were mostly park-like and open and were dominated by large, fire-resistant trees. The understory was comprised mainly of grasses and forbs that sprouted after each fire [9].

Douglas-fir forests: Interior Douglas-fir forests experience a highly variable, mixed-severity fire regime [9] ranging from low- to moderate-severity surface fires every 7 to 20 years to severe crown fires every 50 to 400 years [142]. These fires create heterogeneous forests with variable species composition, structure, and age classes [9].

Coulter pine-coast live oak forests: Wildfires are frequent in Coulter pine-coast live oak forests in the southern Coast Ranges of California where California brome is a dominant understory species. Since 1912, major fires (>10,000 acres (4,000 ha)) have burned on the average of once every 3 years [36].

Western oak woodlands: Oak woodlands are maintained by frequent return-interval (<35 years), understory fire [9]. Frequent, low-severity fires apparently maintained the structure and composition of open Garry oak communities on southern Vancouver Island and the Gulf Islands and prevented invasion by Douglas-fir and other woody species [100,144,166,264]. Fire is the primary natural disturbance agent in oak woodlands and grasslands in the Lower Middle Klamath River area in northern California, where California brome and several other perennial grasses form the primary ground cover. Fire burns the bunchgrasses thatch, creating space for colonization of forbs [218].

Pinyon-juniper woodlands: Fire intervals in pinyon-juniper woodlands vary greatly, but fire is important in eventually opening the canopy. Pinyon-juniper communities experience understory burns when fire is frequent, but typically have moderate- to long-interval, stand-replacing fires [176,256].

Aspen woodlands: Quaking aspen stands experience mixed-severity fires every 35 to 200 years [9]. Fuels are usually moister in quaking aspen stands than in surrounding forest. Crown fires in coniferous forests often drop to the surface in quaking aspen, or may extinguish after burning into quaking aspen a short distance [31,82]. Although individual stems are not particularly fire resistant, quaking aspen sobols and roots are very fire resistant, sending up new suckers to replace stems that die [38]. Following a fire, a new, even-aged quaking aspen stand can develop within a decade [69]. In quaking aspen/California brome communities in eastern Idaho and western Wyoming, quaking aspen depends on moderate-severity fire for successful regeneration [38]. Here, fire frequencies of 100 to 300 years appear to be appropriate for maintaining most seral quaking aspen stands [70].

Sagebrush: Historic fire return intervals in sagebrush (Artemisia sp.) ecosystems were variable, ranging from around 20 to 100 years. Fires were mostly mixed-severity [122,284,285]. Fire return intervals in mountain big sagebrush communities, where Bromus carinatus is often among the dominant species, range from 15 to 40 years [11,45,174].

Annual grasslands: Because they are dominated by nonnative annuals, annual grasslands have no "natural" fire regime. There are no data and few historic records of presettlement fire return intervals in pristine California prairie. Probable mean fire intervals (estimates of fire intervals that are derived from historical or very limited physical evidence) for California prairie are frequent: approximately every 1 to 2 years. Probable mean fire intervals for annual grasslands are every 20 to 30 years [253]. Heady and others [110] suggest that California coastal prairie species, including Bromus carinatus, probably evolved under a "relatively intense fire frequency regime."

The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where California brome and mountain brome are important. Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".

FIRE EFFECTS

• IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT
• PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE
• FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

California brome increased after fire in some cases. It was absent, for example, from unburned plots and present in moderately and severely burned plots following the Waterfalls Canyon Fire in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming [74]. In a mixed-conifer forest in northern Idaho, 2 prescribed underburns were conducted following shelterwood cutting. A moist burn was conducted in June 1989, and a dry (hotter) burn was conducted in September 1989. California brome cover increased following the moist burn and on control plots, and did not change following the dry burn. Percent cover 1 year before logging and 1 year after burning was as follows [233]:

California brome cover did not change significantly (p<0.05) following several disturbance treatments (burning, mowing and selective removals of exotic species) in Garry oak meadows of southwestern British Columbia, suggesting that it was either slow to respond or tolerant of the disturbances [160]. In another study, California brome cover was the same in untreated and burned plots 2 and 4 years after burning in pure quaking aspen and mixed quaking aspen-conifer forests on the Caribou National Forest, Idaho, and the Bridger-Teton National Forest, Wyoming. In the pure quaking aspen forests, cover was 6% to 25% in both untreated and burned plots. In the mixed quaking aspen-conifer forests, California brome cover was 5% or less in both untreated and burned plots [41].

In at least 1 study, California brome decreased after burning. A spring burn was conducted on elk winter-spring range on the Clearwater National Forest, Idaho. California brome was reduced by fire and had not returned to prefire density by the 4th growing season. The frequency (%) of California brome in control and burned areas was low on all sites, however [155].

Mountain brome has been shown to both increase and decrease after fire. Mountain brome may be more abundant in early successional postfire communities and decline over time. Although it was not dominant in the prefire community, it assumed dominance, along with Kentucky bluegrass and dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), 1 year following a fall prescribed burn in a mountain big sagebrush/Kentucky bluegrass community on the Helena National Forest, Montana. By 2 years postfire, mountain brome was no longer dominant [226]. Mountain brome is also present in the understory of seral quaking aspen stands in Arizona that are maintained by severe fires [126].

Mountain brome increased slightly in plots cleared and burned to create an open, park-like condition in 2nd growth giant sequoia forest in Tulare County, California. The number of plants per acre before treatment and in the first 3 years after treatment were as follows [153]:

Mountain brome frequency decreased on cut-and-burn plots in a giant sequoia forest in Kings Canyon National Park, California [141]. Mountain brome cover also decreased significantly (P=0.05) in the 12 weeks following a low-severity prescribed fire in a mountain big sagebrush community on the Gallatin National Forest, Montana. It was a dominant grass before burning. Average basal cover in the 1st postfire growing season was 55% on burned plots and 72% on unburned plots [188].

In a mixed-conifer forest in central El Dorado County, California, mountain brome became more abundant after forest stands were opened by thinning, fire, insect attack, or wind [44]. Mountain brome is often associated with Lemmon's needlegrass (Achnatherum lemmonii), California needlegrass (A. occidentale ssp. californicum), blue wildrye, and other native perennials that assume dominance following an initial 2 to 3 year influx of annual grasses and other early successional herbaceous species. This herbaceous stage is succeeded by a shrub stage during which deerbrush (Ceanothus integerrimus), whitethorn ceanothus (C. cordulatus), manzanitas (Arctostaphylos spp.), and Sierra mountain-misery (Chamaebatia foliolosa) are dominant [44]. In Teton County, Wyoming, mountain brome made up 5% of the total vegetation in mature lodgepole pine stands and 10% in stands opened by fire and on sunny sites within nearly mature stands [28].

Prescribed burning: Successful prescribed burning may be difficult in the snowfield big sagebrush/California brome habitat type in southern Idaho. Fire spread is limited by the wide spacing of shrubs, the gentle terrain, and the mesic nature of the habitat [116].

Time of year was found to be a reliable indicator of moisture content of herbaceous vegetation, including California brome, in the understory of quaking aspen forests on the Bridger-Teton National Forest in Wyoming. During both a wet (1981) and dry (1982) summer, California brome, blue wildrye, and slender wheatgrass cured at slow but steady rates beginning early in the growing season, primarily because seed stalks cured early even though leaves remained lush. The moisture content of grasses in a closed-canopy quaking aspen stand averaged 41% higher than in the adjacent open stand. In quaking aspen forests where herbaceous vegetation is the primary fine fuel, at least 50% curing is needed to sustain fire spread. Information on moisture content throughout the season and degree of curing can therefore be used to plan timing of prescribed burns [40].

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

• IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE
• VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER USES
• OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Livestock: California brome is 1 of the most important forage grasses in the quaking aspen zone of Colorado and Wyoming between 8,000 and 10,500 feet (2,400-3,200 m) elevation, where it produces 11.7% of the forage [60]. In the quaking aspen-subalpine fir zone of central Utah, it forms dense stands and is a key forage plant used to estimate degree and intensity of grazing [170]. California brome is an excellent grass for hay or pasture [236]. It produces moderate amounts of high-quality forage and receives considerable use in spring and early summer prior to seed dispersal [108]. It is tolerant of grazing, although excessive use weakens the stands [255]. The forage is ranked "excellent" for cattle and horses and "good" for domestic sheep [255]. California brome was among the 5 species most utilized by cattle in the Biosphere Reserve of La Michilia in Durango, Mexico [81]. Horses and domestic sheep eat California brome seed heads [262].

Mountain brome accounted for 7% of vegetative cover and 3% of cattle diet in the quaking aspen-willow (Salix spp.) vegetation type on the Helena National Forest in west-central Montana [94]. Horses and cattle graze the flowering stems of mountain brome [180]. Domestic sheep graze mountain brome only when it is fairly succulent [180]. Along with other native perennial grasses and shrubs, mountain brome can be a valuable source of intermittent livestock forage in forest openings created by thinning, fire, wind, or insect outbreaks in the western Sierra Nevada, California [44]. In a study conducted in Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat in northeast Oregon, mountain brome frequency was 9% in plots grazed only by cattle, 14% in plots grazed only by big game, and 18% in plots grazed by both. In the plots where no big game grazing was allowed, mountain brome was reduced by shrubs [146]. Gruell and others [99] state that in western Montana, grassland management should focus on such "productive and palatable species" as mountain brome, bluebunch wheatgrass, and western needlegrass (Achnatherum occidentale).

Bear: California brome is a known grizzly bear food [282].

Deer: California brome was ranked "low" in importance as a food for Columbian black-tailed deer on southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. It was eaten "casually" in April and May or under stress in early winter when palatability is low. Under natural conditions, Columbian black-tailed deer generally consume very small quantities of graminoids [64]. California mule deer on the Los Padres National Forest ate ripe mountain brome seed heads [214]. Mountain brome comprised 1 to 10% of the mule deer diet in a 2nd-growth giant sequoia forest in Tulare County, California, that had been cleared and burned to create an open, park-like condition [153]. Deer in Arizona make "little use" of grasses including mountain brome in the understory of open quaking aspen stands, and are more likely to browse young quaking aspen or other woody species [126].

Elk: California brome is considered excellent forage for elk [255]. Several authors report that elk mainly consume it in summer [154,178,255], although in 1 study, Rocky Mountain elk utilized California brome only during September on the Sapphire Range of western Montana. California brome comprised 3% of the total elk September diet. The preference index value (average utilization divided by the average cover for that species) was 1. Values ≥1 indicate a forage preference by elk for that species. Graminoids generally became the preferred forage class in fall, when frost lowered the palatability of succulent vegetation [165].

The percentage of California brome in elk diets was generally low in montane meadow and fire-created grassland habitats on Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico [283]:

Elk consumed mountain brome at a higher rate than browse species on clearcut quaking aspen stands near Farmington, Utah [55]. In the coastal redwood belt in northwestern California, mountain brome comprised 0.3% cover, and Roosevelt elk used it 0.8% of the total forage minutes recorded. This translated to an index value of 2.7, the 7th highest of 28 species documented. Therefore, while mountain brome was not a leading forage species, it was consumed at a moderately high rate relative to its abundance in the study area [106].

Pronghorn: Einarsen [75] noted that pronghorn ate mountain brome in spring.

Small mammals and birds: California brome seedheads and seeds provide food for many birds and small mammals [178,255]. California quail use bunchgrass-dominated habitats, including oak woodlands and grasslands in the Klamath Basin of northern California where California brome, blue wildrye, and California fescue are understory dominants [218]. In central Oregon, California brome is an important food for northern and Mazama pocket gophers on disturbed sites in early stages of succession [22]. In at least 1 case, California brome increased on areas of northern pocket gopher activity [76]. Over 2 years, Mazama pocket gopher preference for California brome on the Winema National Forest in Klamath County, Oregon, was highest in September, 2nd highest in November, and lowest in July. The authors of the study suggest that the high moisture content of California brome may help explain this feeding pattern. Tietjen and others [259] found that grasses with high moisture content, such as California brome, provide a better diet compared to diets of only nonsucculent grasses. Columbia ground squirrels inhabiting subalpine forest openings in central Idaho ate California brome leaves and fruits on sites subject to either medium- or heavy-intensity domestic sheep grazing. The relative preference index for California brome was 0.25 in the medially grazed site and 3.09 in the heavily grazed site. The latter was among the highest relative preference index ratings for all plants measured in the study [149].

Songbirds and rodents eat mountain brome seeds [272]. Canada geese pluck young plants [272], and seeds have been found in the crops of chukar [105].

Invertebrates: California brome is a host plant of the umber skipper along the Coast Ranges and the foothills of the Sierra Nevada in California. It is reportedly used by both adults and larvae. Adult females have been observed laying eggs singly on the undersides of the leaf blades [17].

Palatability/nutritional value: The palatability of California brome ranges from good to excellent for livestock and big game [37,170,184,197,220,230,250,255], particularly during late spring and early summer [220,265]. The foliage becomes harsh, fibrous, and less palatable at maturity [220,255,262], although if grazed early in the season it produces additional foliage that is palatable into late fall [220]. Some protection from late-season grazing may be necessary, however, since early spring growth depends on carbohydrates stored in the roots and stem bases during the previous fall. Deferred and rotation grazing may be employed to ensure that plants are not grazed continuously during 1 season or at the same time of the season in consecutive years [220].

The palatability of California brome is "excellent" for deer and elk in grassland and shrubland habitats of western Montana [184]. Palatability is "good" for pronghorn [75]. California brome seedheads are palatable and nutritious [112]. Sheep "relish the nutritious seed heads" and lambs "fatten rapidly and economically when well-filled seed heads are abundant" [220]. In a native upland prairie in the Coast Ranges of Oregon, vertebrate predation was an important mortality factor for California brome seeds. In a 1-year study, 21.2% of the seeds planted were lost to vertebrate predation, presumably because California brome has large seeds that are easy to see, easy to handle, and have greater nutrient content than small seeds [52].

California brome was 1 of 8 grasses included in a palatability test in the mountain brush zone near Ogden, Utah. California brome was rated highly palatable relative to the other grasses tested. Mean cattle utilization was [127]:

California brome is highly nutritious to livestock [170], although phosphorus and protein content are both somewhat lower than most mountain grasses at the same growth stages [265]. Crude protein content varied from 13% in mid-June to 3% in mid-September on Utah rangeland [265]. Average percent dry matter and chemical composition of California brome plants collected between 8 July and 27 September was compared between big sagebrush and quaking aspen sites on the Cache National Forest, Utah [56]:

Average percent dry matter and chemical composition of California brome collected from quaking aspen and big sagebrush sites on summer range on the Cache National Forest, Utah, varied between early July and late September as follows [56]:

On the Wasatch Plateau in central Utah, carbohydrate content of California brome herbage was highest immediately after snow melt and lowest during flowerstalk formation. It rose again near the end of the snow-free period. Of the carbohydrates stored in the roots during the fall, ~75% was consumed by physiological activity during the winter and by early spring growth of herbage and adventitious roots (accounting for about 10% of the total annual herbage growth of the plant). The other 25% was not used unless the plant was clipped or grazed. Stored carbohydrates were lowest soon after snow melt, indicating that normal annual growth takes place with carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis [170].

Palatability of California brome in several western states has been rated as follows [71]:

Palatability of mountain brome is intermediate to high for cattle and other livestock in western forests and rangelands [30,126,148,180,183,231,277]. Daily gains of 1.58 lbs were obtained for beef cattle grazing on a 'Bromar' mountain brome-sweetclover (Melilotus spp.) mixture [101]. Mountain brome palatability is low during the winter months and high during the green growth period [180,231,266]. This seasonal palatability could lead to overuse in mixtures or pure stands if not carefully managed [231]. The seeds are highly palatable to livestock in the fall. [272]. It is an "important and desirable range grass" in Montana, where palatability ratings (the average degree to which a plant is eaten by livestock under natural conditions and under good range management) range from 50% for domestic sheep and goats to 80% for cattle and horses [209]. Mountain brome palatability is ranked moderate to good for elk in the spring and summer and fair to moderate for deer in the spring [231,272].

Mountain brome is generally high in crude protein and digestible carbohydrates and makes good quality hay [101,231]. On a Canadian rangeland, dry matter yield and crude protein content increased until approximately the early seed stage (Fulkerson and others 1967, cited in [96]). In a Montana study, the 3-year crude protein average was 4.56%, which was the lowest average obtained for any grass in the study [271]. The average winter crude protein content is 2.6% [231]. On a ponderosa pine plantation in south-central Oregon, crude protein content dropped below the minimum level determined necessary for cattle (9.3%) after week 8. Digestible energy and plant moisture dropped below the minimum levels (2.34 kcal/g and 50%, respectively) after week 12. When these critical levels are reached for forage plants, browse damage to ponderosa pine seedlings in the plantation is more likely [90].

Cover value: In northern California grasslands, tall perennial bunchgrasses including California brome provide bedding material, cover, and protection from predators. "Fawning" occurs in this habitat type in the Lower Middle Klamath River watershed of northern California where California brome, California fescue, and blue wild rye are dominant species (Terrill, personal communication cited in [218]). The degree to which California brome provides cover for small mammals and birds has been rated as follows [71]:

Mountain brome provides cover for voles. Both montane vole and meadow vole abundance was positively correlated with grassland areas dominated by mountain brome, orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), and Kentucky bluegrass in southwest Montana [119].

California brome was one of 9 grasses that established readily after seeding in a burned area in the mountain brush zone of central Utah. It produced relatively high yields for ~4 years, but was later suppressed by smooth brome, a nonnative that was also seeded in. The authors conclude that these short-lived, self-reseeding bunchgrasses are useful in mixtures with slower-developing grasses like smooth brome to ensure rapid establishment of grass cover following seeding [89]. However, native grass mixtures are generally recommended over mixes with nonnative species such as smooth brome [42]. California brome was among the most flexible and successful seeded grasses used in a native vegetation restoration project at Berkeley North Waterfront Park, California. Regular watering and mowing allowed planted native grasses to establish despite presence of nonnative herbs [134]. Restoration of California brome and other native grasses and elimination of nonnative grasses appears to be important to overall valley oak (Quercus lobata) regeneration in the California valley oak ecosystem [66].

California brome seeds have been successfully germinated and established on production fields at the Upper Colorado Environmental Plant Center and shipped to Grand Teton National Park for use in restoration projects [225]. In test plots seeded with a native seed mixture in Grand Teton National Park, California brome responded most favorably to a combination of topsoil application to 6 inches (15 cm), phosphorus application, ripping, and mulching prior to seeding [63].

California brome did not perform well in restoration after the 1993 Old Topanga Fire in Los Angeles County. It was the only native component in the seed mix used, but it never exceeded a few plants/1,000 m² on the reseeded area. None of the postfire studies conducted in the Santa Monica Mountains prior to this fire reported finding California brome, suggesting this was a poor choice for inclusion in the seed mixture [139,140]. In a field experiment in native upland prairie in the Oregon Coast Ranges, 51.6% and 67.5% of California brome seeds planted in each of 2 years died of undetermined causes. Factors not directly tested could include nonfungal diseases, growth interference, and lack of dormancy mechanisms, which makes California brome seeds more vulnerable to adverse abiotic conditions [52].

Mountain brome is 1 of the most valuable grasses where native vegetative cover is needed immediately for revegetation and erosion control on road cuts, fill slopes, burned and logged areas, and other disturbed sites [42,59,101,120,204,231,234,238]. It performs particularly well on moist sites [102,277]. It grows rapidly, has vigorous seedlings, and has a well-branched and deeply-penetrating root system [120,231]. By producing a great number of roots directly below the soil surface, it binds the soil where erosion is most active [237]. Total root volume can double when it is used in a seed mixture with alfalfa (Medicago sativa) or sweetclover, offering greater soil protection than legumes alone [101,120]. The 'Bromar' cultivar is adapted to streambanks, semiwet meadows, subalpine conifer forests, quaking aspen, and upper mountain brush communities in the Intermountain West. It is used to stabilize logging, mining, roadway, and other disturbances [178,266].

The use of successional native plant species is essential to achieve ecological restoration of severely disturbed lands [42]. Because it is quick-growing but short-lived, mountain brome can help to suppress weedy plants in the short term, and then allow longer-lived species to take hold as it dies out [59,231,276]. It produced a good stand, for example, within the 1st year after seeding on a burned 2nd-growth ponderosa pine site in northern Idaho. Within 15 years the longer-lived native vegetation had returned, and mountain brome and other seeded species were difficult to find [234].

Mountain brome is also used to restore forage production on degraded forest and rangeland [59,231,235,273] and to revegetate mined sites in the western United States [207,210]. On an abandoned mine site near Steamboat Springs, Colorado, it produced "fair" and "good" stands in 3 years and was among 9 species that consistently had the best stand ratings [171]. It was 1 of 3 plants classified as "highly resistant" to allelopathic chemicals secreted by spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa) roots under laboratory conditions, suggesting that it may be useful for revegetation of grasslands infested with spotted knapweed [194]. In a study of the effects of frost heaving on reseeded grasses in a burned chamise brushland in Lake County, California, 67% of mountain brome seedlings were frost heaved on the north-facing slope, while only 9% of seedlings on the south-facing slope were heaved. The authors suggest that mulching can minimize frost heaving in recently reseeded areas [33].

Mountain brome colonizes naturally on disturbed sites in Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks, and is included in seed mixtures used for restoration of sites disturbed by road construction, visitor impact, and facility maintenance. It has been included in seed mixtures for Idaho fescue grassland and western redcedar-western hemlock forest in Glacier National Park, and for lodgepole pine forest in Yellowstone National Park [163]. The seeds of mountain brome and other short-lived, pioneer species are relatively easy to collect. The average collection rate in Yellowstone National Park was 269 g/person-hour [164]. Seeds are commercially available [263].

On the other hand, California brome is tolerant of, and may even increase under, light to moderate grazing pressure [78]. On the Umatilla National Forest in northeastern Oregon, California brome developed more cover in an experimentally grazed area than in a protected area [212]. In southwestern Utah, California brome was more abundant in a domestic sheep-grazed pasture (10.1% cover) than in the control area (<1% cover) [37]. In Garry oak meadows in southwestern British Columbia, California brome cover did not change significantly after mowing [160]. Grazing and clipping treatments have stimulated new growth and caused repetition of certain growth stages (e.g., production of flower stalks) [170,262]. In central Oregon, California brome increased with grazing in mixed conifer/pinegrass and ponderosa pine-lodgepole pine/shrub/Idaho fescue communities [268].

California brome responds favorably to decreased grazing pressure. In central Utah, California brome comprised 4% cover in a domestic sheep corral that had been free from grazing for ~20 years, but was absent from an area outside the corral that had been grazed continuously since the late 1800s [143]. In the Wallowa Mountains in northeast Oregon, California brome has increased since livestock grazing ceased at the turn of the 21st century [130]. When grazing was reduced on depleted quaking aspen range in Ephraim Canyon, central Utah, California brome and other plants were observed increasing 1st under the aspen canopy and then spreading into openings within the quaking aspen stands. This may be because severe grazing makes regeneration in openings difficult for moisture-loving species due to loss of litter, drying effects of sun and wind, accelerated erosion of topsoil, and loss of shade from tall herbs [78].

Response of California brome to grazing may depend on the season. On the Wasatch Plateau in central Utah, McCarty and Price found the effects of clipping on carbohydrate storage in California brome varied depending on when clipping occurred. Plants clipped early in the growing season and plants clipped late in the growing season had the highest content of stored carbohydrates (~90% of those stored in unclipped plants). In plants clipped at intermediate stages, carbohydrate content was lower (~67% of those stored in unclipped plants), flower stalks were shorter, seed did not mature, and many of the plants died at the end of the growing season. When plants are clipped early in the season, the regular growth cycle can then be completed and the quantity of carbohydrates stored is nearly normal. If plants are clipped late in the season when herbage growth is complete, carbohydrates stores are not greatly depleted, and regrowth does not occur. The authors therefore suggest that early grazing, when plants are 4 to 6 inches (10-20 cm) high, and grazing near the end of the growing season would permit greater carbohydrate storage and ensure maximum viability in the plants. They also recognize, however, that restriction of grazing periods may not be practical considering the impacts of early grazing on wet soil, the lack of sufficient forage early in the season, and reduced palatability of late-season forage. High mountain ranges with California brome, therefore, should be used moderately, incorporating grazing rotations and providing for less severe grazing during the reproductive period and the beginning of the fall storage period [170].

Mountain brome also appears to decrease under heavy grazing pressure [148,184]. In a greenhouse experiment testing the response of 6 grass species to clipping, root and top production decreased significantly for all species, including mountain brome, under a 30-day clipping schedule. None of the species withstood a 15-day clipping schedule [48]. There is some evidence, on the other hand, that mountain brome increases under light to moderate grazing [260]. In an exclosure experiment on dry mountain meadows near Elk City, Idaho, mountain brome was more abundant outside the exclosure than inside, suggesting that it was favored by light cattle grazing [156]. On the Wallowa National Forest in northeast Oregon, mountain brome increased after grazing in early September in 2 out of 3 quadrats [219]. In study conducted on the Gallatin Game Preserve in Montana, mountain brome showed increases in herbage production, flower stalk numbers, and flower stalk height after 2 years of clipping. The author attributed the increase to reduced competition from forbs. Herbage and flower stalk production began to decrease after 3 years of clipping, although production remained higher on clipped plots than on control plots for all 3 study years. Mountain brome was harmed most by clipping just before seed ripening in late August and during the bloom stage in late July. The author stated that grasslands at higher elevations in the northern Rocky Mountains are sensitive to grazing because plant growth is limited to short periods during the summer, which is when these areas are accessible to grazing animals [182].

Rangeland seeding: Bromus carinatus is suitable for seeding in a variety of habitat types on rangelands throughout the western United States [3,107,158,178,180,200,204,240,266]. For information on rangeland seeding methods, seed mixtures, cultivars, and harvest methods pertaining to California brome, see [6,34,39,108,123,151,169,198,247,262,265]. For similar information pertaining to mountain brome, see [59,101,101,120,158,231,239,261,266,271].

Bromus carinatus: REFERENCES

1. Agee, James K. 1994. Fire and weather disturbances in terrestrial ecosystems of the eastern Cascades. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-320. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 52 p. [Hessburg, Paul F., tech. ed. Eastside forest ecosystem health assessment. Vol. 3: assessment]. [23656]

2. Allen, Barbara H.; Bartolome, James W. 1989. Cattle grazing effects on understory cover and tree growth in mixed conifer clearcuts. Northwest Science. 63(5): 214-220. [10932]

3. Allison, Chris. 1988. Seeding New Mexico rangeland. Circular 525. Las Cruces, NM: New Mexico State University, College of Agriculture and Home Economics, Cooperative Extension Service. 15 p. [11830]

4. Allman, Verl Phillips. 1953. A preliminary study of the vegetation in an exclosure in the chaparral of the Wasatch Mountains, Utah. Utah Academy Proceedings. 30: 63-78. [9096]

5. Ament, Robert J. 1995. Pioneer plant communities five years after the 1988 Yellowstone fires. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 216 p. Thesis. [46923]

6. Amme, David; Pitschel, Barbara M. 1990. Restoration and management of California's grassland habitats. In: Hughes, H. Glenn; Bonnicksen, Thomas M., eds. Restoration `89: the new management challenge: Proceedings, 1st annual meeting of the Society for Ecological Restoration; 1989 January 16-20; Oakland, CA. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Arboretum, Society for Ecological Restoration: 532-542. [14721]

7. Arno, Stephen F. 1976. The historical role of fire on the Bitterroot National Forest. Res. Pap. INT-187. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 29 p. [15225]

8. Arno, Stephen F. 1980. Forest fire history in the Northern Rockies. Journal of Forestry. 78(8): 460-465. [11990]

9. Arno, Stephen F. 2000. Fire in western forest ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 97-120. [36984]

10. Arno, Stephen F.; Fischer, William C. 1995. Larix occidentalis--fire ecology and fire management. In: Schmidt, Wyman C.; McDonald, Kathy J., comps. Ecology and management of Larix forests: a look ahead: Proceedings of an international symposium; 1992 October 5-9; Whitefish, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-319. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 130-135. [25293]

11. Arno, Stephen F.; Gruell, George E. 1983. Fire history at the forest-grassland ecotone in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management. 36(3): 332-336. [342]

12. Arno, Stephen F.; Scott, Joe H.; Hartwell, Michael G. 1995. Age-class structure of old growth ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir stands and its relationship to fire history. Res. Pap. INT-RP-481. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 25 p. [25928]

13. Arno, Stephen F.; Wilson, Andrew E. 1986. Dating past fires in curlleaf mountain-mahogany communities. Journal of Range Management. 39(3): 241-243. [350]

14. Ashby, William C.; Hellmers, Henry. 1955. Temperature requirements for germination in relation to wild-land seeding. Journal of Range Management. 8: 80-83. [25198]

15. Bailey, Lowell F. 1940. Some water relations of three western grasses. II. Drought resistance. III. Root developments. American Journal of Botany. 27(3): 129-135. [203]

16. Baisan, Christopher H.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1990. Fire history on a desert mountain range: Rincon Mountain Wilderness, Arizona, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 20: 1559-1569. [14986]

17. Barbehenn, Raymond V. 1994. Host plants of Poanes melane (Hesperiidae). Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society. 48(4): 386-388. [48327]

18. Barbour, Michael G.; Burk, Jack H.; Pitts, Wanna D. 1980. Major vegetation types of North America. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Burk, Jack H.; Pitts, Wanna D. Terrestrial plant ecology. Menlo Park, CA: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc: 486-583. [45729]

19. Barbour, Michael G.; Johnson, Ann F. 1977. Beach and dune. In: Barbour, M. G.; Major, J., eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley and Sons: 223-261. [27610]

20. Barkworth, Mary E. 2006. [Email to James Riser]. February 23. Preliminary draft: Complete synonymy of Poaceae. Logan, UT: Utah State University. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT; RWU 4403 files. [61568]

21. Barkworth, Mary E.; Capels, Kathleen M.; Anderton, Laurel; Long, Sandy; Piep, Michael B., eds. 2002. Manual of grasses for North America, [Online]. Logan, UT: Utah State University, Intermountain Herbarium (Producer). Available: http://herbarium.usu.edu/grassmanual/ [2008, May 20]. [54539]

22. Barnes, Victor G., Jr. 1974. Response of pocket gopher populations to silvicultural practices in central Oregon. In: Black, Hugh C., ed. Wildlife and forest management in the Pacific Northwest: Proceedings of a symposium; 1973 September 11-12; Corvallis, OR. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, School of Forestry, Forest Research Laboratory: 167-175. [8004]

23. Barrett, Stephen W. 1993. Fire regimes on the Clearwater and Nez Perce National Forests north-central Idaho. Final Report: Order No. 43-0276-3-0112. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 21 p. [41883]

24. Barrett, Stephen W.; Arno, Stephen F.; Key, Carl H. 1991. Fire regimes of western larch - lodgepole pine forests in Glacier National Park, Montana. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 21: 1711-1720. [17290]

25. Bartos, D. L.; Mueggler, W. F. 1982. Early succession following clearcutting of aspen communities in northern Utah. Journal of Range Management. 35(6): 764-768. [3279]

26. Baskin, Carol C.; Baskin, Jerry M. 2001. Seeds: ecology, biogeography, and evolution of dormancy and germination. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 666 p. [60775]

27. Battles, John J.; Shlisky, Ayn J.; Barrett, Reginald H.; Heald, Robert C.; Allen-Diaz, Barbara H. 2001. The effects of forest management on plant species diversity in a Sierran conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 146(1/3): 211-222. [45769]

28. Beetle, Alan A. 1961. Range survey in Teton County, Wyoming: Part 1. Ecology of range resources. Bull. 376. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Agricultural Experiment Station. 42 p. [417]

29. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

30. Betters, David R. 1983. Overstory-understory relationships: aspen forests. In: Bartlett, E. T.; Betters, David R., eds. Overstory-understory relationships in western forests. Western Regional Research Publication No. 1. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University, Agricultural Experiment Station: 5-8. [3309]

31. Bevins, Collin D. 1984. Historical fire occurrence in aspen stands of the Intermountain West. Cooperative Agreement 22-C-4-INT-31. Missoula, MT: Systems for Environmental Management. 23 p. [3649]

32. Biswell, H. H.; Buchanan, H.; Gibbens, R. P. 1966. Ecology of the vegetation of a second-growth sequoia forest. Ecology. 47(4): 630-634. [55065]

33. Biswell, H. H.; Schultz, A. M.; Hedrick, D. W.; Mallory, J. I. 1953. Frost heaving of grass and brush seedings on burned chamise brushlands in California. Journal of Range Management. 6(3): 172-180. [29080]

34. Blaisdell, James P. 1949. Competition between sagebrush seedlings and reseeded grasses. Ecology. 30(4): 512-519. [461]

35. Bonnicksen, Thomas M. 2000. Fire masters. In: Bonnicksen, Thomas M. America's ancient forests: From the Ice Age to the Age of Discovery. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc: 143-216. [46248]

36. Borchert, Mark. 1985. Serotiny and cone-habit variation in populations of Pinus coulteri (Pinaceae) in the southern Coast Ranges of California. Madrono. 32(1): 29-48. [5997]

37. Bowns, James E.; Bagley, Calvin F. 1986. Vegetation responses to long-term sheep grazing on mountain ranges. Journal of Range Management. 39(5): 431-434. [15584]

38. Bradley, Anne F.; Fischer, William C.; Noste, Nonan V. 1992. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of eastern Idaho and western Wyoming. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-290. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 92 p. [19557]

39. Bridges, J. O. 1942. Reseeding practices for New Mexico ranges. Bull. 291. Las Cruces, NM: New Mexico State University, Agricultural Experiment Station. 48 p. [5204]

40. Brown, J. K.; Booth, G. D.; Simmerman, D. G. 1989. Seasonal change in live fuel moisture of understory plants in western U.S. aspen. In: MacIver, D. C.; Auld, H.; Whitewood, R., eds. Proceedings of the 10th conference on fire and forest meteorology; 1989 April 17-21; Ottawa, ON. Boston: American Meteorology Society: 406-412. [15270]

41. Brown, James K.; DeByle, Norbert V. 1989. Effects of prescribed fire on biomass and plant succession in western aspen. Res. Pap. INT-412. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 16 p. [9286]

42. Brown, Ray W.; Amacher, Michael C. 1999. Selecting plant species for ecological restoration: a perspective for land managers. In: Holzworth, Larry K.; Brown, Ray W., comps. Revegetation with native species: Proceedings, 1997 Society for Ecological Restoration annual meeting; 1997 November 12-15; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Proceedings RMRS-P-8. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 1-16. [30341]

43. Bunting, Stephen C.; Kingery, James L.; Hemstrom, Miles A.; Schroeder, Michael A.; Gravenmier, Rebecca A.; Hann, Wendel J. 2002. Altered rangeland ecosystems in the interior Columbia Basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-553. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 71 p. (Quigley, Thomas M., ed.; Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Project: scientific assessment). [43462]

44. Burcham, L. T. 1965. Ponderosa pine management and grazing: a range man's views. In: Proceedings: Society of American Foresters meeting; 1964 September 27 - October 1; Denver, CO. Washington DC: Society of American Foresters: 65-66. [11512]

45. Burkhardt, Wayne J.; Tisdale, E. W. 1976. Causes of juniper invasion in southwestern Idaho. Ecology. 57: 472-484. [565]

46. Burton, Douglas H.; Black, Hugh C. 1978. Feeding habits of Mazama pocket gophers in south-central Oregon. Journal of Wildlife Management. 42(2): 383-390. [15818]

47. Butterwick, Mary; Parfitt, Bruce D.; Hillyard, Deborah. 1992. Vascular plants of the northern Hualapai Mountains, Arizona. Journal of the Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science. 24-25: 31-49. [18327]

48. Carter, J. F.; Law, A. G. 1948. The effect of clipping upon the vegetative development of some perennial grasses. Journal of the American Society of Agronomy. 40(12): 1904-1091. [29174]

49. Casler, Michael D.; Carlson, Irving T. 1995. Smooth bromegrass. In: Barnes, Robert F.; Miller, Darrell A.; Nelson, C. Jerry, eds. Forages. Volume 1: An introduction to grassland agriculture. 5th ed. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press: 313-324. [45329]

50. Chesnut, V. K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of Mendocino County, California. Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium. [Washington, DC]: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Botany. 7(3): 295-408. [54917]

51. Clark, David Lee. 1991. The effect of fire on Yellowstone ecosystem seed banks. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 115 p. Thesis. [36504]

52. Clark, Deborah L.; Wilson, Mark V. 2003. Post-dispersal seed fates of four prairie species. American Journal of Botany. 90(5): 730-735. [44633]

53. Clark, Ronilee A.; Halvorson, William L.; Sawdo, Andell A.; Danielsen, Karen C. 1990. Plant communities of Santa Rosa Island, Channel Islands National Park. Tech. Rep. No. 42. Davis, CA: University of California, Institute of Ecology, Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit. 93 p. [18246]

54. Clay, Keith. 1983. The differential establishment of seedlings from chasmogamous and cleistogamous flowers in natural populations of the grass Danthonia spicata (L.) Beauv. Ecologia. 57(1/2): 183-188. [30471]

55. Collins, William B.; Urness, Philip J. 1983. Feeding behavior and habitat selection of mule deer and elk on northern Utah summer range. Journal of Wildlife Management. 47(3): 646-663. [6915]

56. Cook, C. Wayne; Harris, Lorin E. 1950. The nutritive value of range forage as affected by vegetation type, site, and stage of maturity. Bulletin 344 (Technical). Logan, UT: Utah State Agricultural College, Agricultural Experiment Station. 45 p. [678]

57. Cook, C. Wayne; Harris, Lorin E. 1968. Nutritive value of seasonal ranges. Bulletin 472. Logan, UT: Utah State University, Agricultural Experiment Station. 55 p. [679]

58. Cooper, Charles F. 1960. Changes in vegetation, structure, and growth of southwestern pine forests since white settlement. Ecological Monographs. 30(2): 129-164. [3927]

59. Cornelius, Donald R.; Talbot, M. W. 1955. Rangeland improvement through seeding and weed control on east slope Sierra Nevada and on southern Cascade Mountains. Agric. Handb. 88. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 51 p. [7510]

60. Costello, David F. 1944. Important species of the major forage types in Colorado and Wyoming. Ecological Monographs. 14(1): 107-134. [693]

61. Costello, David F.; Price, Raymond. 1939. Weather and plant-development data as determinants of grazing periods on mountain range. Tech. Bull. 686. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 31 p. [694]

62. Cottam, Walter P.; Evans, Frederick R. 1945. A comparative study of the vegetation of grazed and ungrazed canyons of the Wasatch Range, Utah. Ecology. 26(2): 171-181. [695]

63. Cotts, N. R.; Redente, E. F.; Schiller, R. 1991. Restoration methods for abandoned roads at lower elevations in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming. Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation. 5: 235-249. [16995]

64. Cowan, Ian McTaggart. 1945. The ecological relationships of the food of the Columbian black-tailed deer, Odocoileus hemionus columbianus (Richardson), in the coast forest region of southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Ecological Monographs. 15(2): 110-139. [16006]

65. Cronquist, Arthur; Holmgren, Arthur H.; Holmgren, Noel H.; Reveal, James L.; Holmgren, Patricia K. 1977. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 6: The Monocotyledons. New York: Columbia University Press. 584 p. [719]

66. Danielsen, Karen C.; Halvorson, William L. 1990. Valley oak restoration: a community approach. Fremontia. 18(3): 52. [13826]

67. Davis, Kathleen M. 1980. Fire history of a western larch/Douglas-fir forest type in northwestern Montana. In: Stokes, Marvin A.; Dieterich, John H., tech. coords. Proceedings of the fire history workshop; 1980 October 20-24; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-81. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 69-74. [12813]

68. Dealy, J. Edward. 1971. Habitat characteristics of the Silver Lake mule deer range. Res. Pap. PNW-125. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 99 p. [782]

69. DeByle, Norbert V. 1985. The role of fire in aspen ecology. In: Lotan, James E.; Kilgore, Bruce M.; Fisher, William C.; Mutch, Robert W., technical coordinators. Proceedings--Symposium and workshop on wilderness fire; 1983 November 15-18; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-182. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 326. [7363]

70. DeByle, Norbert V.; Bevins, Collin D.; Fischer, William C. 1987. Wildfire occurrence in aspen in the interior western United States. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 2(3): 73-76. [774]

71. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The Plant Information Network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]

72. Donnegan, Joseph A. 1999. Climatic and human influences on fire regimes in Pike National Forest. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado. 122 p. Dissertation. [40456]

73. Donnegan, Joseph A.; Veblen, Thomas T.; Sibold, Jason S. 2001. Climatic and human influences on fire history in Pike National Forest, central Colorado. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 31: 1526-1539. [43091]

74. Doyle, Kathleen M.; Knight, Dennis H.; Taylor, Dale L.; Barmore, William J., Jr.; Benedict, James M. 1998. Seventeen years of forest succession following the Waterfalls Canyon Fire in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 8(1): 45-55. [29072]

75. Einarsen, Arthur S. 1948. The pronghorn antelope and its management. Washington, DC: Wildlife Management Institute. 238 p. [25479]

76. Ellison, L.; Aldous, C. M. 1952. Influence of pocket gophers on vegetation of subalpine grassland in central Utah. Ecology. 33(2): 177-186. [3427]

77. Ellison, Lincoln. 1954. Subalpine vegetation of the Wasatch Plateau, Utah. Ecological Monographs. 24: 89-184. [861]

78. Ellison, Lincoln; Houston, Walter R. 1958. Production of herbaceous vegetation in openings and under canopies of western aspen. Ecology. 39(2): 337-345. [3423]

79. Erdman, James Allen. 1969. Pinyon-juniper succession after fires on residual soils of the Mesa Verde, Colorado. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado. 81 p. Dissertation. [11437]

80. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

81. Ezcurra, Exequiel; Gallina, Sonia. 1980. Joint management of deer and cattle. In: IUFRO/MAB conference: research on multiple use of forest resources: Proceedings; 1980 May 18-23; Flagstaff, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-25. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 146. [15926]

82. Fechner, Gilbert H.; Barrows, Jack S. 1976. Aspen stands as wildfire fuel breaks. Eisenhower Consortium Bulletin 4. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 26 p. In cooperation with: Eisenhower Consortium for Western Environmental Forestry Research. [7611]

83. Ffolliott, Peter F. 1983. Overstory-understory relationships: Southwestern ponderosa pine forests. In: Bartlett, E. T.; Betters, David R., eds. Overstory-understory relationships in western forests. Western Regional Research Publication No. 1. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University Experiment Station: 13-18. [3311]

84. Finney, Mark A.; Martin, Robert E. 1989. Fire history in a Sequoia sempervirens forest at Salt Point State Park, California. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 19: 1451-1457. [9845]

85. Floyd, M. Lisa; Romme, William H.; Hanna, David D. 2000. Fire history and vegetation pattern in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, USA. Ecological Applications. 10(6): 1666-1680. [37590]

86. Franklin, Jerry F.; Dyrness, C. T. 1973. Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-8. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 417 p. [961]

87. Friederici, Peter. 2003. Healing the region of pines: forest restoration in Arizona's Uinkaret Mountains. In: Friederici, Peter, ed. Ecological restoration of southwestern ponderosa pine forests. Washington, DC: Island Press: 197-214. [47569]

88. Friedman, Jannice; Harder, Lawrence D. 2005. Functional associations of floret and inflorescence traits among grass species. American Journal of Botany. 92(11): 1862-1870. [60662]

89. Frischknecht, Neil C.; Plummer, A. Perry. 1955. A comparison of seeded grasses under grazing and protection on a mountain brush burn. Journal of Range Management. 8: 170-175. [979]

90. Fulgham, K. O. 1986. Plantation grazing in southcentral Oregon. In: Proceedings--seventh annual forest vegetation management conference; 1985 November 6-7; Eureka, CA. Redding, CA: Forest Vegetation Management Conference: 123-130. [4048]

91. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; Lewis, Mont E.; Smith, Dixie R. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]

92. Gates, Dillard H.; Harris, Grant A. 1959. Longevity, competitive ability, and productivity of grasses in three northeastern Washington nurseries. Northwest Science. 33(2): 76-83. [1004]

93. Gleason, Henry A.; Cronquist, Arthur. 1991. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. New York: New York Botanical Garden. 910 p. [20329]

94. Gordon, F. A. 1968. Range relationships of elk and cattle on elk winter range, Crow Creek, Montana. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 52 p. Thesis. [43974]

95. Gottfried, Gerald J.; Swetnam, Thomas W.; Allen, Craig D.; Betancourt, Julio L.; Chung-MacCoubrey, Alice L. 1995. Pinyon-juniper woodlands. In: Finch, Deborah M.; Tainter, Joseph A., eds. Ecology, diversity, and sustainability of the Middle Rio Grande Basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-268. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 95-132. [26188]

96. Graves, Robbie G. 1971. Effects of redberry juniper control on understory vegetation. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University. 86 p. Thesis. [19988]

97. Greenlee, Jason M.; Langenheim, Jean H. 1990. Historic fire regimes and their relation to vegetation patterns in the Monterey Bay area of California. The American Midland Naturalist. 124(2): 239-253. [15144]

98. Gruell, G. E.; Loope, L. L. 1974. Relationships among aspen, fire, and ungulate browsing in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 33 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Region. [3862]

99. Gruell, George E.; Brown, James K.; Bushey, Charles L. 1986. Prescribed fire opportunities in grasslands invaded by Douglas-fir: state-of-the-art guidelines. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-198. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 19 p. [1050]

100. Habeck, James R. 1961. The original vegetation of the mid-Willamette Valley, Oregon. Northwest Science. 35: 65-77. [11419]

101. Hafenrichter, A. L.; Schwendiman, John L.; Harris, Harold L.; MacLauchlan, Robert S.; Miller, Harold W. 1968. Grasses and legumes for soil conservation in the Pacific Northwest and Great Basin states. Agric. Handb. 339. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 69 p. [18604]

102. Hall, Frederick C. 1973. Plant communities of the Blue Mountains in eastern Oregon and southeastern Washington. R6 Area Guide 3-1. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 82 p. [1059]

103. Hallsten, Gregory P.; Skinner, Quentin D.; Beetle, Alan A. 1987. Grasses of Wyoming. 3rd ed. Research Journal 202. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Agricultural Experiment Station. 432 p. [2906]

104. Harlan, Jack R. 1945. Cleistogamy and chasmogamy in Bromus carinatus Hook. & Arn. American Journal of Botany. 32: 66-72. [3272]

105. Harper, Harold T.; Harry, Beverly H.; Bailey, William D. 1958. The chukar partridge in California. California Game and Fish. 44: 5-50. [24221]

106. Harper, James A. 1962. Daytime feeding habits of Roosevelt elk on Boyes Prairie, California. Journal of Wildlife Management. 26(1): 97-100. [8876]

107. Harris, Grant A.; Dobrowolski, James P. 1986. Population dynamics of seeded species on northeast Washington semiarid sites, 1948-1983. Journal of Range Management. 39(1): 46-51. [1095]

108. Hassell, Wendell G.; Carlson, Jack; Doughty, Jim. 1983. Grasses for revegetation of mountain sites. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Shaw, Nancy, compilers. Managing Intermountain rangelands--improvement of range and wildlife habitats: Proceedings of symposia; 1981 September 15-17; Twin Falls, ID; 1982 June 22-24; Elko, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-157. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 95-101. [1105]

109. Hayward, Herman E. 1928. Studies of plants in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Botanical Gazette. 85(4): 353-412. [1110]

110. Heady, Harold F.; Foin, Theodore C.; Hektner, Mary M.; Taylor, Dean W.; Barbour, Michael G.; Barry, W. James. 1977. Coastal prairie and northern coastal scrub. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley and Sons: 733-760. [7211]

111. Hedrick, D. W.; Young, J. A.; McArthur, J. A. B.; Keniston, R. F. 1968. Effects of forest and grazing practices on mixed coniferous forests of northeastern Oregon. Tech. Bulletin 103. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Agricultural Experiment Station. 24 p. [16090]

112. Herzman, Carl W.; Everson, A. C.; Mickey, Myron H.; Porter, Ivan R.; Searway, Robert H.; Fonte, Carlton S. 1959. Handbook of Colorado native grasses. Bulletin 450-A. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University, Extension Service. 31 p. [10994]

113. Heyerdahl, Emily K.; Berry, Dawn; Agee, James K. 1994. Fire history database of the western United States. Final report. Interagency agreement: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency DW12934530; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service PNW-93-0300; University of Washington 61-2239. Seattle, WA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pacific Northwest Research Station; University of Washington, College of Forest Resources. 28 p. [+ appendices]. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [27979]

114. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1400 p. [21992]

115. Hinckley, L. C. 1944. The vegetation of the Mount Livermore area in Texas. The American Midland Naturalist. 32: 236-250. [4451]

116. Hironaka, M.; Fosberg, M. A.; Winward, A. H. 1983. Sagebrush-grass habitat types of southern Idaho. Bulletin Number 35. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, Forest, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station. 44 p. [1152]

117. Hitchcock, A. S. 1951. Manual of the grasses of the United States. Misc. Publ. No. 200. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Administration. 1051 p. [2nd edition revised by Agnes Chase in two volumes. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.]. [1165]

118. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]

119. Hodgson, James R. 1972. Local distribution of Microtus montanus and M. pennsylvanicus in southwestern Montana. Journal of Mammalogy. 53(3): 487-499. [60160]

120. Hoover, Max M.; Hein, M. A.; Dayton, William A.; Erlanson, C. O. 1948. The main grasses for farm and home. In: Grass: The yearbook of agriculture--1948. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture: 639-700. [1190]

121. Horner, Michael A. 2001. Vascular flora of the Glass Mountain Region, Mono County, California. Aliso. 20(2): 75-105. [53374]

122. Houston, Douglas B. 1973. Wildfires in northern Yellowstone National Park. Ecology. 54(5): 1111-1117. [5781]

123. Hull, A. C., Jr.; Hervey, D. F.; Doran, Clyde W.; McGinnies, W. J. 1958. Seeding Colorado range lands. Bulletin 498-S. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University, Experiment Station. 46 p. [244]

124. Hulten, Eric. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 1008 p. [13403]

125. Humphrey, R. R. 1969. The past role of fire in range management in the Southwest and some future possibilities: Part I. In: Wagle, R. F., ed. Proceedings of the symposium on fire ecology and the control and use of fire in wild land management; 1969 April 19; Tucson, AZ. In: Journal of the Arizona Academy of Science. Tucson, AZ: Arizona Academy of Science: 52-56. [4734]

126. Humphrey, Robert R. 1955. Forage production on Arizona ranges: IV. Coconino, Navajo, Apache counties: A study in range condition. Bulletin 266. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona, Agricultural Experiment Station. 84 p. [5087]

127. Hurd, Richard M.; Pearse, C. Kenneth. 1944. Relative palatability of eight grasses used in range reseeding. Journal of the American Society of Agronomy. 36(2): 162-165. [29181]

128. Jensen, M. E.; Peck, L. S.; Wilson, M. V. 1988. A sagebrush community type classification for mountainous northeastern Nevada rangelands. The Great Basin Naturalist. 48: 422-433. [27717]

129. Jensen, Mark E. 1989. Soil climate and plant community relationships on some rangelands of northeastern Nevada. Journal of Range Management. 42(4): 275-280. [7976]

130. Johnson, Charles G., Jr. 2003. Green fescue rangelands: changes over time in the Wallowa Mountains. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-569. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 41 p. [45491]

131. Johnson, Charles G., Jr.; Simon, Steven A. 1987. Plant associations of the Wallowa-Snake Province: Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. R6-ECOL-TP-255A-86. Baker, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. 399 p. [9600]

132. Jones, T. A. 2000. Use of native plants for sagebrush steppe restoration. In: Entwistle, P. G.; DeBolt, A. M.; Kaltenecker, J. H.; Steenhof, K., compilers. Sagebrush steppe ecosystems symposium: Proceedings; 1999 June 21-23; Boise, ID. Publ. No. BLM/ID/PT-001001+1150. Boise, ID: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Boise State Office: 73-77. [42723]

133. Jorgensen, Kent R.; Stevens, Richard. 2004. Seed collection, cleaning, and storage. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard; Shaw, Nancy L., comps. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136-vol. 3. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 699-716. [42398]

134. Kaplow, David. 1985. Coastal ecology restoration on landfill. In: Rieger, John P.; Steele, Bobbie A., eds. Proceedings of the native plant revegetation symposium; 1984 November 15; San Diego, CA. San Diego, CA: California Native Plant Society: 1-4. [3339]

135. Kartesz, John T. 1999. A synonymized checklist and atlas with biological attributes for the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. 1st ed. In: Kartesz, John T.; Meacham, Christopher A. Synthesis of the North American flora (Windows Version 1.0), [CD-ROM]. Chapel Hill, NC: North Carolina Botanical Garden (Producer). In cooperation with: The Nature Conservancy; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service; U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. [36715]

136. Kauffman, J. Boone. 1990. Ecological relationships of vegetation and fire in Pacific Northwest forests. In: Walstad, J.; Radosevich, S. R.; Sandberg, D. V., eds. Natural and prescribed fire in Pacific Northwest forests. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press: 39-52. [22930]

137. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock, Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2nd ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1085 p. [6563]

138. Keeley, Jon E. 1981. Reproductive cycles and fire regimes. In: Mooney, H. A.; Bonnicksen, T. M.; Christensen, N. L.; Lotan, J. E.; Reiners, W. A., tech. coords. Fire regimes and ecosystem properties: Proceedings of the conference; 1978 December 11-15; Honolulu, HI. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-26. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 231-277. [4395]

139. Keeley, Jon E. 1998. Postfire ecosystem recovery and management: the October 1993 large fire episode in California. In: Moreno, J. M., ed. Large forest fires. Leiden, The Netherlands: Backbuys Publishers: 69-90. [28855]

140. Keeley, Jon E.; Carrington, Mary; Trnka, Sally. 1995. Overview of management issues raised by the 1993 wildfires in southern California. In: Keeley, Jon F.; Scott, Tom, eds. Brushfires in California: ecology and resource management: Proceedings; 1994 May 6-7; Irvine, CA. Fairfield, WA: International Association of Wildland Fire: 83-89. [43323]

141. Kilgore, Bruce M. 1971. Response of breeding bird populations to habitat changes in a giant sequoia forest. The American Midland Naturalist. 85(1): 135-152. [7281]

142. Kilgore, Bruce M. 1981. Fire in ecosystem distribution and structure: western forests and scrublands. In: Mooney, H. A.; Bonnicksen, T. M.; Christensen, N. L.; Lotan, J. E.; Reiners, W. A., tech. coords. Fire regimes and ecosystem properties: Proceedings of the conference; 1978 December 11-15; Honolulu, HI. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-26. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 58-89. [4388]

143. Klemmedson, James O.; Tiedemann, Arthur R. 1994. Soil and vegetation development in an abandoned sheep corral on degraded subalpine rangeland. The Great Basin Naturalist. 54(4): 301-312. [25510]

144. Klinka, Karel; Qian, Hong; Pojar, Jim; Meidinger, Del V. 1996. Classification of natural forest communities of coastal British Columbia, Canada. Vegetatio. 125: 149-168. [28530]

145. Koehler, David A. 1975. A review of the literature on reseeding sagebrush-bunchgrass ranges in the semi-arid western United States. Wildlife Research Report Number 4. Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Project W-53-R. Corvallis, OR: Oregon Wildlife Commission. 47 p. [50655]

146. Krueger, W. C.; Vavra, M.; Wheeler, W. P. 1980. Plant succession as influenced by habitat type, grazing management, and reseeding on a northeast Oregon clearcut. In: 1980 progress report--research in rangeland management. Special Report 586. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Agricultural Experiment Station: 32-37. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, SEA-AR. [2749]

147. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. United States [Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States]. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 1:3,168,000; colored. [3455]

148. Lacey, John; Mosley, John. 2002. 250 plants for range contests in Montana. MONTGUIDE MT198402 AG 6/2002. Range E-2 (Misc.). Bozeman, MT: Montana State University, Extension Service. 4 p. [43671]

149. Lambeth, Ron; Hironaka M. 1982. Columbia ground squirrel in subalpine forest openings in central Idaho. Journal of Range Management. 35(4): 493-497. [8269]

150. Laven, R. D.; Omi, P. N.; Wyant, J. G.; Pinkerton, A. S. 1980. Interpretation of fire scar data from a ponderosa pine ecosystem in the central Rocky Mountains, Colorado. In: Stokes, Marvin A.; Dieterich, John H., tech. coords. Proceedings of the fire history workshop; 1980 October 20-24; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-81. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 46-49. [7183]

151. Lavin, Fred. 1953. Guide for reseeding burned and logged-over ponderosa pine lands in the Southwest. Res. Rep. No. 10. Tucson, AZ: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southwestern Forest and Range Experiment Station. 11 p. [15549]

152. Lavin, Fred; Springfield, H. W. 1955. Seeding in the southwestern pine zone for forage improvement and soil protection. Agriculture Handbook No. 89. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 52 p. [20853]

153. Lawrence, George; Biswell, Harold. 1972. Effect of forest manipulation on deer habitat in giant sequoia. The Journal of Wildlife Management. 36(2): 595-605. [41671]

154. Leege, Thomas A., compiler. 1984. Guidelines for evaluating and managing summer elk habitat in northern Idaho. Wildlife Bull. No. 11; Federal Aid Project W-160-R. Boise, ID: Idaho Fish and Game Department. 37 p. [13681]

155. Leege, Thomas A.; Godbolt, Grant. 1985. Herbaceous response following prescribed burning and seeding of elk range in Idaho. Northwest Science. 59(2): 134-143. [1436]

156. Leege, Thomas A.; Herman, Daryl J.; Zamora, Benjamin. 1981. Effects of cattle grazing on mountain meadows in Idaho. Journal of Range Management. 34(4): 324-328. [2961]

157. Lewis, Mont E. 1971. Flora and major plant communities of the Ruby-East Humboldt Mountains with special emphasis on Lamoille Canyon. Elko, NV: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Region 4, Humboldt National Forest. 62 p. [1450]

158. Love, R. Merton; Jones, Burle J. 1952. Improving California brush ranges. Circular 371. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Agriculture Experiment Station. 13 p. [16664]

159. MacDougall, Andrew S.; Turkington, Roy. 2004. Relative importance of suppression-based and tolerance-based competition in an invaded oak savanna. Journal of Ecology. 92(3): 422-434. [48504]

160. MacDougall, Andrew. 2002. Invasive perennial grasses in Quercus garryana meadows of southwestern British Columbia: prospects for restoration. In: Standiford, Richard B.; McCreary, Douglas; Purcell, Kathryn L., tech. coords. Proceedings of the 5th symposium on oak woodlands: oaks in California's changing landscape; 2001 October 22-25; San Diego, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-184. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station: 159-168. [42312]

161. MacLauchlan, Robert S. 1973. The role of the Soil Conservation Service's work with plant materials. In: Hulbert, Lloyd C., ed. 3rd Midwest prairie conference proceedings; 1972 September 22-23; Manhattan, KS. Manhattan, KS: Kansas State University, Division of Biology: 9-12. [3325]

162. Majerus, Mark E. 1991. Yellowstone National Park-Bridger Plant Materials Center native plant program. In: Rangeland Technology Equipment Council: 1991 annual report. 9222-2808-MTDC. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center, Technology and Development Program: 17-22. [17082]

163. Majerus, Mark. 1997. Restoration of disturbances in Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 52(4): 232-236. [28622]

164. Majerus, Mark. 1999. Collection and production of indigenous plant material for national park restoration. In: Revegetation with native species: Proceedings, 1997 Society for Ecological Restoration annual meeting; 1997 November 12-15; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Proceedings RMRS-P-8. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 17-21. [30375]

165. Marcum, C. Les. 1979. Summer-fall food habits and forage preferences of a western Montana elk herd. In: Boyce, Mark S.; Hayden-Wing, Larry D., eds. North American elk: ecology, behavior and management. Laramie, WY: The University of Wyoming: 54-62. [39437]

166. Maslovat, Carrina. 2002. Historical jigsaw puzzles: piecing together the understory of Garry oak (Quercus garryana) ecosystems and the implications for restoration. In: Standiford, Richard B.; McCreary, Douglas; Purcell, Kathryn L., tech. coords. Proceedings of the 5th symposium on oak woodlands: oaks in California's changing landscape; 2001 October 22-25; San Diego, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-184. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station: 141-149. [42310]

167. McAlister, Dean F. 1943. The effect of maturity on the viability and longevity of the seeds of western range and pasture grasses. Journal of the American Society of Agronomy. 35(5): 442-453. [29176]

168. McArthur, E. Durant; Blauer, A. Clyde; Monsen, Stephen B.; Sanderson, Stewart C. 1995. Plant inventory, succession, and reclamation alternatives on disturbed lands in Grand Teton National Park. In: Roundy, Bruce A.; McArthur, E. Durant; Haley, Jennifer S.; Mann, David K., compilers. Proceedings: wildland shrub and arid land restoration symposium; 1993 October 19-21; Las Vegas, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-315. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 343-358. [24866]

169. McArthur, E. Durant; Young, Stanford A. 1999. Development of native seed supplies to support restoration of pinyon-juniper sites. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard, comps. Proceedings: ecology and management of pinyon-juniper communities within the Interior West: Sustaining and restoring a diverse ecosystem; 1997 September 15-18; Provo, UT. Proc. RMRS-P-9. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 327-330. [30591]

170. McCarty, Edward C.; Price, Raymond. 1942. Growth and carbohydrate content of important mountain forage plants in central Utah as affected by clipping and grazing. Technical Bulletin No. 818. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 51 p. [1589]

171. McGinnies, William J. 1987. Effects of hay and straw mulches on the establishment of seeded grasses and legumes on rangeland and a coal strip mine. Journal of Range Management. 40(2): 119-121. [47777]

172. McPherson, Guy R. 1995. The role of fire in the desert grasslands. In: McClaran, Mitchel P.; Van Devender, Thomas R., eds. The desert grassland. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press: 130-151. [26576]

173. Meinecke, E. P. 1929. Quaking aspen: A study in applied forest pathology. Tech. Bull. No. 155. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [26669]

174. Miller, Richard F.; Rose, Jeffery A. 1995. Historic expansion of Juniperus occidentalis (western juniper) in southeastern Oregon. The Great Basin Naturalist. 55(1): 37-45. [25666]

175. Minore, Don. 1972. A classification of forest environments in the South Umpqua basin. Res. Pap. PNW-129. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 28 p. [1660]

176. Moir, William H. 1982. A fire history of the High Chisos, Big Bend National Park, Texas. The Southwestern Naturalist. 27(1): 87-98. [5916]

177. Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard. 2004. Seedbed preparation and seeding practices. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard; Shaw, Nancy L., comps. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136-vol. 1. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 121-154. [52825]

178. Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard; Shaw, Nancy. 2004. Grasses. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard; Shaw, Nancy L. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136-vol-2. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 295-424. [52841]

179. Mooney, Melissa Jane. 1985. A preliminary classification of high-elevation sagebrush-grass vegetation in northern and central Nevada. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 123 p. Thesis. [1689]

180. Morris, H. E.; Booth, W. E.; Payne, G. F.; Stitt, R. E. 1950. Important grasses on Montana ranges. Bull. No. 470. Bozeman, MT: Montana Agricultural Experiment Station. 52 p. [5520]

181. Morrison, Peter H.; Swanson, Frederick J. 1990. Fire history and pattern in a Cascade Range landscape. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-254. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 77 p. [13074]

182. Mueggler, W. F. 1967. Response of mountain grassland vegetation to clipping in southwestern Montana. Ecology. 48(6): 942-949. [1705]

183. Mueggler, W. F. 1985. Forage. In: DeByle, Norbert V.; Winokur, Robert P., eds. Aspen: ecology and management in the western United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-119. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 129-134. [11915]

184. Mueggler, W. F.; Stewart, W. L. 1980. Grassland and shrubland habitat types of western Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-66. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 154 p. [1717]

185. Mueggler, Walter F. 1988. Aspen community types of the Intermountain Region. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-250. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 135 p. [5902]

186. Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Nevada Natural Heritage Program. 2003. National vegetation classification for Nevada, [Online]. Carson City, NV: Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Nevada Natural Heritage Program (Producer). 15 p. Available: http://heritage.nv.gov/ecology/nv_nvc.htm [2005, November 3]. [55021]

187. Nichols, R.; Adams, T.; Menke, J. 1984. Shrubland management for livestock forage. In: DeVries, Johannes J., ed. Shrublands in California: literature review and research needed for management. Contribution No. 191. Davis, CA: University of California, Water Resources Center: 104-121. [5708]

188. Nimir, Mutasim Bashir; Payne, Gene F. 1978. Effects of spring burning on a mountain range. Journal of Range Management. 31(4): 259-263. [1756]

189. Paulsen, Harold A., Jr. 1970. The ecological response of species in a Thurber fescue community to manipulative treatments. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University. 145 p. Dissertation. [1843]

190. Pavlick, Leon E. 1995. Bromus L. of North America. Victoria, BC: Royal British Columbia Museum. 160 p. [36401]

191. Payne, Gene F. 1973. Vegetative rangeland types in Montana. Bull. 671. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University, Montana Agricultural Experiment Station. 15 p. [1847]

192. Paysen, Timothy E.; Ansley, R. James; Brown, James K.; Gottfried, Gerald J.; Haase, Sally M.; Harrington, Michael G.; Narog, Marcia G.; Sackett, Stephen S.; Wilson, Ruth C. 2000. Fire in western shrubland, woodland, and grassland ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 121-159. [36978]

193. Pearson, Scott M.; Turner, Monica G.; Wallace, Linda L.; Romme, William H. 1995. Winter habitat use by large ungulates following fire in northern Yellowstone National Park. Ecological Applications. 5(3): 744-755. [26077]

194. Perry, Laura G.; Johnson, Chandra; Alford, Elan R.; Vivanco, Jorge M.; Paschke, Mark W. 2005. Screening of grassland plants for restoration after spotted knapweed invasion. Restoration Ecology. 13(4): 725-735. [60454]

195. Peters, Erin F.; Bunting, Stephen C. 1994. Fire conditions pre- and postoccurrence of annual grasses on the Snake River Plain. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Kitchen, Stanley G., comps. Proceedings--ecology and management of annual rangelands; 1992 May 18-22; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-313. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 31-36. [24249]

196. Pitschel, Barbara M. 1988. Value of propagule bank revealed by grassland restoration project (California). Restoration & Management Notes. 6(1): 35-36. [5471]

197. Platts, William S.; Armour, Carl; Booth, Gordon D.; Bryant, Mason; Bufford, Judith L.; Cuplin, Paul; Jensen, Sherman; Lienkaemper, George W.; Minshall, G. Wayne; Monsen, Stephen B.; Nelson, Roger L.; Sedell, James R.; Tuhy, Joel S. 1987. Methods for evaluating riparian habitats with applications to management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-221. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 177 p. [6171]

198. Plummer, A. Perry. 1943. The germination and early seedling development of twelve range grasses. Journal of the American Society of Agronomy. 35: 19-34. [1896]

199. Plummer, A. Perry. 1977. Revegetation of disturbed Intermountain area sites. In: Thames, J. C., ed. Reclamation and use of disturbed lands of the Southwest. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press: 302-337. [27411]

200. Plummer, A. Perry; Christensen, Donald R.; Monsen, Stephen B. 1968. Restoring big-game range in Utah. Publ. No. 68-3. Ephraim, UT: Utah Division of Fish and Game. 183 p. [4554]

201. Pojar, J.; Trowbridge, R.; Coates, D. 1984. Ecosystem classification and interpretation of the sub-boreal spruce zone, Prince Rupert Forest Region, British Columbia. Land Management Report No. 17. Victoria, BC: Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests. 319 p. [6929]

202. Powell, David C. 1994. Effects of the 1980's western spruce budworm outbreak on the Malheur National Forest in northeastern Oregon. Tech. Pub. R6-FI&D-TP-12-94. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Natural Resources Staff, Forest Insects and Diseases Group. 176 p. [29717]

203. Quinnild, Clayton L.; Cosby, Hugh E. 1958. Relicts of climax vegetation on two mesas in western North Dakota. Ecology. 39(1): 29-32. [1925]

204. Rainier Seeds, Inc. 2003. Catalog, [Online]. Davenport, WA: Rainer Seeds, Inc., (Producer). Available: http://www.rainerseeds.com [2003, February 14]. [27624]

205. Ralphs, Michael H.; Turner, David L.; Mickelsen, Larry V.; Evans, John O.; Dewey, Steven A. 1990. Herbicides for control of tall larkspur (Delphinium barbeyi). Weed Science. 38: 573-577. [16849]

206. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]

207. Redente, E. F.; McLendon, T.; Agnew, W. 1997. Influence of topsoil depth on plant community dynamics of a seeded site in northwest Colorado. Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation. 11: 139-149. [27751]

208. Reed, Robert M. 1976. Coniferous forest habitat types of the Wind River Mountains, Wyoming. The American Midland Naturalist. 95(1): 159-173. [1950]

209. Reitz, Louis P.; Morris, H. E. 1939. Important grasses and other common plants on Montana ranges: description, distribution and relative value. Bull. 375. Bozeman, MT: Montana State College, Agricultural Experiment Station. 35 p. [1954]

210. Richardson, Bland Z. 1985. Reclamation in the Intermountain Rocky Mountain Region. In: McCarter, M. K., ed. Design of non-impounding mine waste dumps; 1981 November; [Location of conference unknown]. New York: Society of Mining Engineers of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc: 177-192. [12780]

211. Riegel, Gregg M.; Smith, Bradley G.; Franklin, Jerry F. 1992. Foothill oak woodlands of the interior valleys of southwestern Oregon. Northwest Science. 66(2): 66-76. [18470]

212. Riggs, Robert A.; Tiedemann, Arthur R.; Cook, John G.; Ballard, Teena M.; Edgerton, Paul J.; Vavra, Martin; Krueger, William C.; Hall, Frederick C.; Bryant, Larry D.; Irwin, Larry L.; Delcurto, Timothy. 2000. Modification of mixed-conifer forests by ruminant herbivores in the Blue Mountains ecological province. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-527. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 77 p. [39277]

213. Ripple, William J. 1994. Historic spatial patterns of old forests in western Oregon. Journal of Forestry. 92(11): 45-49. [33881]

214. Robinson, Cyril S. 1937. Plants eaten by California mule deer on the Los Padres National Forest. Journal of Forestry. 35(3): 285-292. [51853]

215. Rowe, J. S. 1969. Lightning fires in Saskatchewan grassland. The Canadian Field-Naturalist. 83: 317-324. [6266]

216. Saenz, Loretta. 1983. Quercus garryana woodland/grassland mosaic dynamics in northern California. Arcata, CA: Humboldt State University. 71 p. Thesis. [52769]

217. Saenz, Loretta; Sawyer, J. O., Jr. 1986. Grasslands as compared to adjacent Quercus garryana woodland understories exposed to different grazing regimes. Madrono. 33(1): 40-46. [52748]

218. Salazar, Lucy A.; Hoover, Lisa D.; McGee, Elizabeth A.; Flattley, Martha S. 2002. Oak-woodland/grassland encroachment--implications for fuels management. In: Sugihara, Neil G.; Morales, Maria; Morales, Tony, eds. Fire in California ecosystems: integrating ecology, prevention and management: Proceedings of the symposium; 1997 November 17-20; San Diego, CA. Misc. Pub. No. 1. [Davis, CA]: Association for Fire Ecology: 372-375. [46240]

219. Sampson, Arthur W. 1914. Natural revegetation of range lands based upon growth requirements and life history of the vegetation. Journal of Agricultural Research. 3(2): 93-147. [4146]

220. Sampson, Arthur W.; Chase, Agnes; Hedrick, Donald W. 1951. California grasslands and range forage grasses. Bull. 724. Berkeley, CA: University of California College of Agriculture, California Agricultural Experiment Station. 125 p. [2052]

221. Sapsis, David B. 1990. Ecological effects of spring and fall prescribed burning on basin big sagebrush/Idaho fescue--bluebunch wheatgrass communities. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 105 p. Thesis. [16579]

222. Schlatterer, Edward F. 1972. A preliminary description of plant communities found on the Sawtooth, White Cloud, Boulder and Pioneer Mountains. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. Unpublished paper on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 111 p. [2076]

223. Schott, Martin R. 1981. Classification and ordination of seral communities. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 154 p. Thesis. [2090]

224. Schultz, Brad W. 1987. Ecology of curlleaf mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius) in western and central Nevada: population structure and dynamics. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 111 p. Thesis. [7064]

225. Schultz, K. M.; Goodson, D. G. 1992. Seed conditioning and plant propagation of Grand Teton National Park native plant materials. In: Proceedings, 16th annual conference on wetlands restoration and creation; 1989 May 25-26; Tampa, FL. In: Restoration & Management Notes. 10(2): 198. Abstract. [20225]

226. Schwecke, Deitrich A.; Hann, Wendell. 1989. Fire behavior and vegetation response to spring and fall burning on the Helena National Forest. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Breuer, David W.; Zamora, Benjamin A.; Neuenschwander, Leon F.; Wakimoto, Ronald H., comps. Prescribed fire in the Intermountain region: Forest site preparation and range improvement: Symposium proceedings; 1986 March 3-5; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Department of Natural Resources, Cooperative Extension: 135-142. [11260]

227. Seabloom, Eric W.; Bjornstad, Ottar N.; Bolker, Benjamin M.; Reichman, O. J. 2005. Spatial signature of environmental heterogeneity, dispersal, and competition in successional grasslands. Ecological Monographs. 75(2): 199-214. [54868]

228. Seklecki, Mariette T.; Grissino-Mayer, Henri D.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1996. Fire history and the possible role of Apache-set fires in the Chiricahua Mountains of southeastern Arizona. In: Ffolliott, Peter F.; DeBano, Leonard F.; Baker, Malchus B., Jr.; Gottfried, Gerald J.; Solis-Garza, Gilberto; Edminster, Carleton B.; Neary, Daniel G.; Allen, Larry S.; Hamre, R. H., tech. coords. Effects of fire on Madrean Province ecosystems: a symposium proceedings; 1996 March 11-15; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-289. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 238-246. [28082]

229. Selmants, Paul C.; Knight, Dennis H. 2003. Understory plant species composition 30-50 years after clearcutting in southeastern Wyoming coniferous forests. Forest Ecology and Management. 185: 275-289. [46096]

230. Shanafelt, Bonita Joy. 2000. Effects of control measures on diffuse knapweed, plant diversity, and transitory soil seed-banks in eastern Washington. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Department of Natural Resource Sciences. 89 p. Thesis. [38405]

231. Shaw, A. F.; Cooper, C. S. 1973. The interagency forage, conservation and wildlife handbook. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University, Extension Service. 205 p. [5666]

232. Shiflet, Thomas N., ed. 1994. Rangeland cover types of the United States. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management. 152 p. [23362]

233. Simmerman, Dennis G.; Arno, Stephen F.; Harrington, Michael G.; Graham, Russell T. 1991. A comparison of dry and moist fuel underburns in ponderosa pine shelterwood units in Idaho. In: Andrews, Patricia L.; Potts, Donald F., eds. Proceedings, 11th annual conference on fire and forest meteorology; 1991 April 16-19; Missoula, MT. SAF Publication 91-04. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 387-397. [16186]

234. Slinkard, A. E.; Nurmi, E. O.; Schwendiman, J. L. 1970. Seeding burned-over lands in northern Idaho. Current Information Series No. 139. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, College of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service; Agricultural Experiment Station. 4 p. [19669]

235. Smith, Justin G. 1963. A subalpine grassland seeding trial. Journal of Range Management. 16: 208-210. [3799]

236. Sours, John M. 1983. Characteristics and uses of important grasses for arid western rangelands. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Shaw, Nancy, compilers. Managing Intermountain rangelands--improvement of range and wildlife habitats: Proceedings of a symposia; 1981 September 15-17; Twin Falls, ID; 1982 June 22-24; Elko, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-157. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 90-94. [2201]

237. Spence, Liter E. 1937. Root studies of important range plants of the Boise River watershed. Journal of Forestry. 35: 747-754. [77]

238. Springer, Judith D.; Waltz, Amy E. M.; Fule, Peter Z.; Moore, Margaret M.; Covington, W. Wallace. 2001. Seeding versus natural regeneration: A comparison of vegetation change following thinning and burning in ponderosa pine. In: Vance, Regina K.; Edminster, Carleton B.; Covington, W. Wallace; Blake, Julie A., compilers. Ponderosa pine ecosystems restoration and conservation: steps toward stewardship: Conference proceedings; 2000 April 25-27; Flagstaff, AZ. Proceedings RMRS-P-22. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 67-73. [42142]

239. Stark, R. H.; Hafenrichter, A. L.; Klages, K. H. 1949. The production of seed and forage by mountain brome as influenced by nitrogen and age of stand. Agronomy Journal. 41(11): 508-512. [60193]

240. Stebbins, G. L.; Jr.; Tobgy, H. A. 1944. The cytogenetics of hybrids in Bromus. I. Hybrids within the section Ceratochloa. American Journal of Botany. 31(1): 1-11. [60194]

241. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. The Douglas-fir/mountain maple habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Preliminary draft. On file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 77 p. [8434]

242. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. The Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-252. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 65 p. [8136]

243. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1992. The grand fir/mountain maple habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-284. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 90 p. [17791]

244. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1993. The Douglas-fir/pinegrass habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-298. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 83 p. [21512]

245. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1994. The Douglas-fir/white spirea habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-305. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 81 p. [23481]

246. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1995. Major Douglas-fir habitat types of central Idaho: a summary of succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-331. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 23 p. [26587]

247. Stevens, Richard. 1999. Restoration of native communities by chaining and seeding. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard, compilers. Proceedings: ecology and management of pinyon-juniper communities within the Interior West: Sustaining and restoring a diverse ecosystem; 1997 September 15-18; Provo, UT. Proceedings RMRS-P-9. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 285-289. [30567]

248. Stevens, Richard. 2004. Management of restored and revegetated sites. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard; Shaw, Nancy L., comps. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136-vol. 1. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 193-198. [52828]

249. Stevens, Richard; McArthur, E. Durant; Davis, James N. 1992. Reevaluation of vegetative cover changes, erosion, and sedimentation on two watersheds -- 1912-1983. In: Clary, Warren P.; McArthur, E. Durant; Bedunah, Don; Wambolt, Carl L., compilers. Proceedings--symposium on ecology and management of riparian shrub communities; 1991 May 29-31; Sun Valley, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-289. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 123-128. [19105]

250. Stevens, Richard; Monsen, Stephen B. 2004. Guidelines for restoration and rehabilitation of principal plant communities. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard; Shaw, Nancy L., comps. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136-vol. 1. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 199-294. [52829]

251. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species comprising secondary plant succession in Northern Rocky Mountain forests. FEIS workshop: Postfire regeneration. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 10 p. [20090]

252. Strickler, Gerald S.; Edgerton, Paul J. 1976. Emergent seedlings from coniferous litter and soil in eastern Oregon. Ecology. 57: 801-807. [2039]

253. Stromberg, Mark R.; Kephart, Paul; Yadon, Vern. 2001. Composition, invasibility, and diversity in coastal California grasslands. Madrono. 48(4): 236-252. [41371]

254. Stuart, John D. 1987. Fire history of an old-growth forest of Sequoia sempervirens (Taxodiaceae) forest in Humboldt Redwoods State Park, California. Madrono. 34(2): 128-141. [7277]

255. Stubbendieck, James; Hatch, Stephan L.; Butterfield, Charles H. 1992. North American range plants. 4th ed. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. 493 p. [25162]

256. Swetnam, Thomas W.; Baisan, Christopher H.; Caprio, Anthony C.; Brown, Peter M. 1992. Fire history in a Mexican oak-pine woodland and adjacent montane conifer gallery forest in southeastern Arizona. In: Ffolliott, Peter F.; Gottfried, Gerald J.; Bennett, Duane A.; Hernandez C., Victor Manuel; Ortega-Rubio, Alfred; Hamre, R. H., tech. coords. Ecology and management of oak and associated woodlands: perspectives in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico: Proceedings; 1992 April 27-30; Sierra Vista, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-218. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 165-173. [19759]

257. Tande, Gerald F. 1979. Fire history and vegetation pattern of coniferous forests in Jasper National Park, Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany. 57: 1912-1931. [18676]

258. Tiedemann, Arthur R.; Klock, Glen O. 1973. First-year vegetation after fire, reseeding, and fertilization on the Entiat Experimental Forest. Research Note PNW-195. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 23 p. [40770]

259. Tietijen, Howard P.; Halvorson, Curtis H.; Hedgal, Paul L.; Johnson, Ancel M. 1967. 2,4-D herbicide, vegetation, and pocket gopher relationships--Black Mesa, Colorado. Ecology. 48(4): 634-643. [63002]

260. Turner, George T.; Paulsen, Harold A., Jr. 1976. Management of mountain grasslands in the Central Rockies: the status of our knowledge. Res. Pap. RM-161. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 24 p. [2372]

261. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 1957. Grasses and legumes for forage and conservation. ARS 22-42. Washington, DC. 32 p. [19487]

262. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1937. Range plant handbook. Washington, DC. 532 p. [2387]

263. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2008. PLANTS Database, [Online]. Available: https://plants.usda.gov /. [34262]

264. Ussery, Joel G. 1997. Managing invasive plant species in Garry oak meadow vegetation communities: a case study of Scotch broom. Burnaby, BC: Simon Fraser University, School of Resource and Environmental Management. 109 p. Thesis. [52440]

265. Vallentine, John F. 1961. Important Utah range grasses. Extension Circular 281. Logan, UT: Utah State University. 48 p. [2937]

266. Vallentine, John F. 1971. Range development and improvements. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press. 516 p. [2414]

267. Vincent, Dwain W. 1992. The sagebrush/grasslands of the upper Rio Puerco area, New Mexico. Rangelands. 14(5): 268-271. [19698]

268. Volland, Leonard A. 1985. Guidelines for forage resource evaluation within the central Oregon Pumice Zone. R6-Ecol-177-1985. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 216 p. [12497]

269. Wade, Dale D.; Brock, Brent L.; Brose, Patrick H.; Grace, James B.; Hoch, Greg A.; Patterson, William A., III. 2000. Fire in eastern ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 53-96. [36983]

270. Walters, Gretchen M. 2003. Winter ephemeral vegetation and seed banks of four north-facing slopes in the Sonoran Desert. Madrono. 50(1): 45-52. [44810]

271. Wambolt, Carl. 1976. Montana range seeding guide. Bulletin 347. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University, Cooperative Extension Service. 23 p. [99]

272. Wasser, Clinton H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the West. FWS/OBS-82/56. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological Services, Western Energy and Land Use Team. 347 p. Available from NTIS, Springfield, VA 22161; PB-83-167023. [2458]

273. Weaver, Harold. 1951. Observed effects of prescribed burning on perennial grasses in the ponderosa pine forests. Journal of Forestry. 49(4): 267-271. [4618]

274. Weaver, T. 1974. Ecological effects of weather modification: effect of late snowmelt on Festuca idahoensis Elmer meadows. The American Midland Naturalist. 92(2): 346-356. [16789]

275. Weaver, T.; Collins, D. 1977. Possible effects of weather modification (increased snowpack) on Festuca idahoensis meadows. Journal of Range Management. 30(6): 451-456. [30529]

276. Weddell, Bertie J., ed. 2001. Restoring palouse and canyon grasslands: putting back the missing pieces. Technical Bulletin No. 01-15. Boise, ID: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Idaho State Office. 32 p. [45215]

277. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]

278. West, Neil E.; Tausch, Robin J.; Tueller, Paul T. 1998. A management-oriented classification of pinyon-juniper woodlands of the Great Basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-12. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 42 p. [29131]

279. Whisenant, Steven G. 1990. Postfire population dynamics of Bromus japonicus. The American Midland Naturalist. 123: 301-308. [11150]

280. Wiens, John F. 2000. Vegetation and flora of Ragged Top, Pima County, Arizona. Desert Plants. 16(2): 3-31. [39488]

281. Wiggins, Ira L. 1980. Flora of Baja California. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 1025 p. [21993]

282. Willard, E. Earl; Herman, Margaret. 1977. Grizzly bear and its habitat. Final Report. [Cooperative Agreement between U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Region 1 and University of Montana, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station]. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 28 p. [15115]

283. Wolters, Gale L. 1996. Elk effects on Bandelier National Monument meadows and grasslands. In: Allen, Craig D., ed. Fire effects in Southwestern forests: Proceedings, 2nd La Mesa fire symposium; 1994 March 29-31; Los Alamos, NM. RM-GTR-286. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 196-205. [27293]

284. Wright, Henry A.; Bailey, Arthur W. 1982. Fire ecology: United States and southern Canada. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 501 p. [2620]

285. Wright, Henry A.; Neuenschwander, Leon F.; Britton, Carlton M. 1979. The role and use of fire in sagebrush-grass and pinyon-juniper plant communities: A state-of-the-art review. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-58. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 48 p. [2625]

286. Wright, R. D.; Mooney, H. A. 1965. Substrate-oriented distribution of bristlecone pine in the White Mountains of California. The American Midland Naturalist. 73(2): 257-284. [2628]

287. Young, J. A.; Hedrick, D. W.; Keniston, R. F. 1967. Forest cover and logging--herbage and browse production in the mixed coniferous forest of northeastern Oregon. Journal of Forestry. 65: 807-813. [16290]

288. Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A. 1981. Demography and fire history of a western juniper stand. Journal of Range Management. 34(6): 501-505. [2659]

289. Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A.; Lee, William O.; Swan, D. G. 1984. Weedy bromegrasses and their control. Farmers' Bulletin Number 2278. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Extension Service; Agricultural Research Service. 23 p. [2673]

290. Young, James A; Evans, Raymond A.; Major, Jack. 1977. Sagebrush steppe. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons Inc.: 763-796. [2680]

291. Youngblood, Andrew; Metlen, Kerry L.; Coe, Kent. 2006. Changes in stand structure and composition after restoration treatments in low elevation dry forests of northeastern Oregon. Forest Ecology and Management. 234(1-3): 143-163. [64992]

292. Youngblood, Andrew; Wickman, Boyd E. 2002. The role of disturbance in creating dead wood: insect defoliation and tree mortality in northeastern Oregon. In: Laudenslayer, William F., Jr.; Shea, Patrick J.; Valentine, Bradley E.; Weatherspoon, C. Phillip; Lisle, Thomas E., tech. coords. Proceedings of the symposium on the ecology and management of dead wood in western forests; 1999 November 2-4; Reno, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-181. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station: 155-168. [44351]