Fire Effects Information System (FEIS)

FEIS Home Page

• Introductory
• Distribution and occurrence
• Botanical and ecological characteristics
• Fire ecology
• Fire effects
• Management considerations
• References

INTRODUCTORY

AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION FEIS ABBREVIATION SYNONYMS NRCS PLANT CODE COMMON NAMES TAXONOMY LIFE FORM FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS OTHER STATUS
	Photo © 2011 Ryan Batten, used with permission.

LIFE FORM:
Graminoid

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:
No special status

OTHER STATUS:
Geyer's sedge is classified as endangered by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources [107].

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE

• GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
• ECOSYSTEMS
• STATES
• BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS
• KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
• SAF COVER TYPES
• SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES
• HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES

STATES:

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [19]:
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau

KUCHLER [85] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K008 Lodgepole pine-subalpine forest
K010 Ponderosa shrub forest
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K014 Grand fir-Douglas-fir forest
K015 Western spruce-fir forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K018 Pine-Douglas-fir forest
K019 Arizona pine forest 
K020 Spruce-fir-Douglas-fir forest
K021 Southwestern spruce-fir forest
K022 Great Basin pine forest
K023 Juniper-pinyon woodland
K038 Great Basin sagebrush
K050 Fescue-wheatgrass
K052 Alpine meadows and barren
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K063 Foothills Prairie
K096 Northeastern spruce-fir forest

SAF COVER TYPES [44]:
206 Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir
208 Whitebark pine
209 Bristlecone pine
210 Interior Douglas-fir
212 Western larch
213 Grand fir
215 Western white pine
217 Aspen
218 Lodgepole pine
219 Limber pine
220 Rocky Mountain juniper
237 Interior ponderosa pine
238 Western Juniper
239 Pinyon-juniper
256 California mixed subalpine

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [120]:
102 Idaho fescue
108 Alpine Idaho fescue
109 Ponderosa pine shrubland
110 Ponderosa pine-grassland
304 Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass 
315 Big sagebrush-Idaho fescue
401 Basin big sagebrush
402 Mountain big sagebrush
409 Tall forb 411 Aspen woodland
412 Juniper-pinyon woodland
413 Gambel oak

HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES:
Geyer's sedge commonly occurs in dry coniferous forest types. Forest types in which Geyer's sedge occurs include those dominated by ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis), grand fir (Abies grandis), quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta). For more information refer to the table in Site Characteristics. Geyer's sedge is often a codominant in habitat types naming pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens) as the dominant understory species, as in the aspen/pinegrass type in eastern Idaho, western Wyoming, and northern Utah [101] and conifer/pinegrass types in the Blue Mountains of Oregon [8,61], Idaho [119,129], and Montana [108]. Geyer's sedge is also a component of shrublands dominated by Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii) [87] and sagebrush (Artemisia spp.)  [76,140], as well as some grassland and alpine communities [138,143].

Geyer's sedge is a climax indicator or dominant species in the understory layer of several habitat types of forest, shrub, and pine-savanna ecosystems. The following list of publications includes selected classifications listing Geyer's sedge as an indicator or codominant species in habitat, community and association types. 

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM REGENERATION PROCESSES SITE CHARACTERISTICS SUCCESSIONAL STATUS SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
	Geyer's sedge spikes. Photo © 2005 Christopher L. Christie, used with permission.

Geyer's sedge is easily recognized by its few-flowered, solitary spikes. The spike has a slender staminate part bearing male flowers above the 1-3 pistillate (female) flowers, which are distinctly separate and bear scales with a short awn at the tip [89]. Each spike bears 1-3 wingless perigynia. The fruit is an achene bearing large seeds [64,69,89,141,146].

Geyer's sedge shoots, rhizomes, and roots. Photo ©Sierra Pacific Industires, used with permission.

Breeding system:  Monoecious

Pollination:  No information

Seed production: Geyer's sedge produces few seeds [81,142], generally 1 per flowering spike, and those produced have low viability [81,131]. Seed production often increases following disturbance [95].

Seed dispersal: Geyer's sedge has no apparent means for seed dispersal [129], but relies on seed stored in soil and asexual reproduction.

Seed banking: Geyer's sedge seeds are stored in soil [73,128]. Steele and Geyer-Hayes rated viability at 56% [128], although viability probably varies with conditions.  

Germination: Seed stored in soil germinates well following clearcutting and scarification, and can also germinate on mineral soil after burning [128,129]. Seeds may not be able to germinate after being exposed to very high temperatures. In a study in Yellowstone National Park, seeds of Geyer's sedge were collected from soil and subjected to 1-hour heat treatments of 122, 212, or 302 degrees Fahrenheit (50, 100, or 150 °C). Seeds germinated after treatments of 122 and 212 degrees Fahrenheit (50 and 100 °C) but did not germinate at 302 degrees Fahrenheit (150 °C) [30].

Seedling establishment/growth: No information

Asexual regeneration: Geyer's sedge spreads by short, creeping rhizomes [129,141]. Plugs have been used to propagate Geyer's sedge where seed could not be germinated successfully [81].

The following table provides a summary of the elevational ranges in which Geyer's sedge occurs:

Geyer's sedge requires from 12 to 20 inches (305-508 mm) of yearly precipitation and tolerates temperatures down to -28 degrees Fahrenheit (-33 °C) [142]. However, it has been on sites with average precipitation up to 30 inches (750 mm) in Washington [20] and up to 45 inches (1,145 mm) in Oregon [32]. Heyerdahl and others [67] list Geyer's sedge as a component of the understory in forest stands generally growing on low slope, south-west aspect sites with well-drained soils. This probably describes the majority of sites on which Geyer's sedge grows, but site conditions vary even within the same ecosystems among different geographical areas. It may, therefore, be most helpful to describe site characteristics within the various ecosystems and areas in which Geyer's sedge occurs.

Northern Rocky Mountain forested sites: Geyer's sedge is a component of the understory in several forest types of the northern Rocky Mountains. The following table provides examples of the wide variety of conditions at forested sites on which Geyer's sedge may be found. The dominant tree species with which Geyer's sedge grows are listed in Habitat Types And Plant Communities.

Intermountain forested sites: Geyer's sedge is an important herbaceous understory species in relatively open forested sites of the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon and southeastern Washington [58]. In this area, Geyer's sedge is found on sites receiving from 8 to 45 inches (200-1,145 mm) precipitation [32]. Throughout its range, Geyer's sedge generally grows on relatively dry sites on sandy to loamy textured well-drained soils, often derived from basalt or granite, sometimes with an ash component. At higher elevations it grows on sandy to loamy textured soils derived from basalt, granite, and tuff (compacted volcanic ash) [58]. Soils at its lower elevation range in this area are loams and silty loams derived from ash, loess, and basalt. Topik [136] lists Geyer's sedge as an indicator of "harsh" conditions or site types on the eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains in Washington. Geyer's sedge was generally found in this area on fairly flat ground (2-34% slope) at 2,750 to 4,000 feet (838-1,219 m) elevation, and was associated with grand fir and pinegrass. Sites supporting the grand fir/Geyer's sedge association were hot and dry, with cold winters and relatively short growing seasons. Geyer's sedge was also found in the Palouse region of southeastern Washington, predominantly on north-east-facing slopes [6]. Geyer's sedge may form a dense sod layer on previously-logged sites on the eastern slopes of the Cascade Mountains in west-central Washington, where precipitation averages approximately 30 inches (750 mm) per year [20].

Shrub-dominated sites: Geyer's sedge is less common in shrub-dominated habitat types than in forested types, but occurs over a range of conditions within shrub types. Geyer's sedge is a minor component of shrub-steppe habitat types in north-central Colorado. Average precipitation on these shrub-steppe sites is 14 to 15.6 inches (350-390 mm) per year, distributed fairly evenly throughout year, half occurring as snow [135]. Geyer's sedge occurs but is rare on dry slopes in sagebrush scrub and open woodlands in California [103]. It also occurs in sagebrush communities on south slopes in the Sawtooth Mountains of central Idaho [140] and in mountain big sagebrush (A. t. ssp. vaseyana) communities above 7,000 feet (2,130 m) on steep southeasterly slopes in the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area on the Oregon-Idaho border [76]. Geyer's sedge is a component of the shrub-dominated ninebark/snowberry/Geyer's sedge community type in Umatilla River Drainage in the Blue Mountains of northeast Oregon [18]. Geyer's sedge has also been documented in Gambel oak shrubland in Colorado on sites with gentle (0-30%) slopes on both north and south exposures, with approximately 22 inches (560 cm) precipitation [87].

Grassland and alpine sites: Geyer's sedge occurs in mountain grasslands interspersed among timber stands in the Rocky Mountains. These areas are characterized by long, cold winters and relatively cool summers. Precipitation ranges from 20 to 40 inches (510-1020 mm) and occurs mostly as snow, which may cover the ground from October to May [138]. These areas have soils resembling prairie soils, with a thick A horizon rich in organic matter. Geyer's sedge is codominant with  Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) in very productive grass-sedge communities at about 7,000 feet (2,130 m) in the Seven Devils Mountains in northeast Oregon and western Idaho [76]. These grass-sedge communities occur primarily among scree slopes on the steep mountainsides. Geyer's sedge has also been documented on dry alpine sites in the Beartooth Mountains of south-central Montana [143]. 

Riparian areas: Geyer's sedge is an upland plant but was reported as a component of riparian vegetation at drier sites studied in the Centennial Mountains of Idaho [40].

SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:
Geyer's sedge is relatively shade-tolerant [108] compared to other upland sedges, and in some cases seems to grow more vigorously with a light canopy cover. In a study conducted in the Blue Mountains of Oregon, Geyer's sedge growing in open areas was more stressed, with shorter, lighter green leaves drying at the tips, than plants growing under a mixed conifer overstory [31]. Other studies in the Blue Mountains reported that cover of Geyer's sedge declines with increased tree canopy cover and poorer range condition [59,61]. Disturbance is part of the equation as well. Cholewa [27] reported that cover and frequency of Geyer's sedge was lower in logged and grazed plots than in undisturbed climax plots. Response of Geyer's sedge to grazing pressure is also discussed in Other Management Considerations.

The presence of Geyer's sedge as a dominant species often indicates a late successional stage. Aspen/Geyer's sedge and conifer/Geyer's sedge types are generally considered stable climax types in the northern Rocky Mountains and Intermountain region of the United States [5,71,83,98,101,102,129]. For example, Geyer's sedge is considered a late-seral to climax species in Douglas-fir habitat types of central Idaho [129]. Geyer's sedge also occurs as an understory codominant with pinegrass in mature stands of the Douglas-fir/ninebark/pinegrass community type, which is a theoretical climax forest in conditions of fire suppression [13]. In the Palouse region of southeastern Washington and adjacent areas of Idaho, stands dominated by Geyer's sedge represent a topo-edaphic climax association [6]. Geyer's sedge is listed as an important species in climax subalpine fir and spruce eastside forests in Oregon and Washington [75].

In some site types Geyer's sedge is considered mid-seral. For example, the presence of an Geyer's sedge layer indicates mid-seral conditions in the subalpine fir/beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax) habitat type in northern Idaho and northwestern Montana [121]. The aspen/chokecherry/Geyer's sedge type in Utah can be climax, or may be seral to the subalpine fir/Oregon grape (Mahonia repens) type in northern Utah or the subalpine fir/Geyer's sedge type in southern and central Utah [104]. The aspen-lodgepole pine/Geyer's sedge type in Idaho is seral to the lodgepole pine/pinegrass type [101].

In habitat types where Geyer's sedge is the dominant herbaceous species, it is often 1st to sprout following fire [119]. It is also dominant in early successional stages following fire in spruce-fir forests of Colorado [29]. Geyer's sedge may depend on fire to lower competition from other plants. Hall [59] cited prevention of understory burning as the cause of decreased Geyer's forage provided by pinegrass and Geyer's sedge in mixed conifer/pinegrass communities in northeastern Oregon. Further information about the response of Geyer's sedge to fire can be found in Plant Response To Fire.

SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:
Geyer's sedge sprouts early in the spring, making use of soil moisture while there is little competition from other plants, and may go dormant if soil moisture is depleted [128]. Vegetative shoots are produced from "semi-woody" rootstalks during the 1st growing season. They emerge in early spring the following year, then remain green for at least 2 years [122]. Leaves generally remain green all winter, especially under snow [84,93,115], although cover of Geyer's sedge may be reduced in areas where snow persists until late June [133]. Geyer's sedge flowers in late spring to early summer, from April to July [39], but most commonly in May and June [7,122].

FIRE ECOLOGY

• FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS
• POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY

Fire regimes: Geyer's sedge occurs in vegetation types with a variety of fire regimes. Heyerdahl and others [67] assigned habitat types to Heinselman fire regimes in a multiscale study in the interior western United States. The habitat types or community types in which Geyer's sedge is a codominant occur mainly within Heinselman fire regimes 2 (frequent light surface fires with 1-25 year return interval) and 3 (infrequent, severe surface fires with a greater than 25 year return interval). Geyer's sedge is also an important component of several types that occur within fire regime 1 (infrequent light surface fires with a greater than 25 year return interval) and 4 (short interval return crown fires with 25-100 year return intervals).

Habitat types, community types, and phases are grouped into "fire groups" for given geographic areas, based on their presettlement fire regimes, response of dominant tree species to fire, and successional patterns. The fire group assigned to a given type may vary among geographic areas because of floristic, climatic, and ecological differences among areas. The fire groups are ordered in a gradient of conditions from warmest, driest habitat types at low elevations, through cold habitat types at high elevations, to warm, moist habitat types of montane and lower elevations [124].

Geyer's sedge occurs as an understory dominant in warm, dry to moderate Douglas-fir forests. Generally the fire regime for these forests was characterized by frequent, nonlethal surface fire in presettlement times with relatively few stand-replacing fires [123]. Geyer's sedge is also listed as a component of the vegetation in types within higher elevation fire groups, including persistent lodgepole pine with a history of frequent, widespread stand-replacing fires; dry lower subalpine forests, which are characterized by a history of stand-replacing fires occurring at intervals of 52 to 200 years or more; moist lower subalpine forests that developed under less frequent and less uniform fires; and upper subalpine types with a history of mixed-severity fires with return intervals of 60 to 300 years [124]. In eastern Idaho and western Wyoming, Geyer's sedge is a dominant species in the understory of forests developed under a wider variety of fire regimes. These forest types include certain moist Douglas-fir types with fire return intervals of 15 to 100 years and low-severity fires to severe stand replacing fires; persistent lodgepole pine community types with low-intensity ground fires or stand-replacing fires; mid- and lower elevation subalpine forests with fire return intervals of 50 to 350 years but generally greater than 100 years; and cold, upper subalpine and timberline habitat types where fires are infrequent (50-300 year return intervals) and stand-replacing fires are rare [22]. In Utah Geyer's sedge occurs in warm, dry ponderosa pine habitat types with a history of frequent fires (less than 50 year return interval), drier Douglas-fir habitat types with a variety of fire regimes, quaking aspen habitat and community types established after fire, and habitat types with persistent lodgepole pine stands that are perpetuated or maintained by fire occurring at intervals of 22 to over 300 years [23].

Several references [1,13,59,60,126] have described Geyer's sedge as a prominent understory component in areas with low-intensity, frequent burns. In some areas fire suppression has allowed tree canopy to increase, which has resulted in a decrease in Geyer's sedge cover. One of the best-known examples of this phenomenon is in forests of the Blue Mountains in northeastern Oregon. These dry Douglas-fir and grand fir forests with undergrowth dominated by pinegrass and Geyer's sedge apparently developed with a history of frequent (10-15 year return interval), low-intensity fires [1,60,126]. The open canopy and grassy understory of Geyer's sedge and pinegrass in mixed-conifer forests of the Blue Mountains in northeastern Oregon were maintained by frequent, low-intensity fires prior to European settlement [2]. Fire suppression has led to greater canopy cover, resulting in lower understory cover, of which Geyer's sedge is a major component [1,60]. Geyer's sedge is also a component of the herbaceous understory in Douglas-fir/western larch forests in the northern Rocky Mountains, which historically experienced frequent fires, and in subalpine fir forest, with long (100-300 yr) fire intervals [57]. Geyer's sedge also occurs in the Engelmann spruce/subalpine fir/Geyer's sedge habitat type, in which high intensity, stand-replacing fires are common [147].

Fire regimes for Geyer's sedge sites are generally related to the dominant tree or shrub species occurring with Geyer's sedge. The following table summarizes information about fire return intervals for the dominant species and communities with which Geyer's sedge is found. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".

FIRE EFFECTS

• IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT
• PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE
• FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT:
Sources do not specify that severe fire kills Geyer's sedge, but some sources report that Geyer's sedge cover decreases after severe or relatively intense fire, or imply that some plants are killed by fire. For example, Turner and others [139] specify Geyer's sedge demonstrated a negative relationship between sprout density and fire severity, implying fewer plants survived more severe fires to resprout after the fire. Zimmerman [153] found cover of Geyer's sedge was generally much lower on burned plots than unburned plots. Taylor [134] reported that "a few Carex plants survived the fire" in a study area in which Geyer's sedge made up a "significant" part of the flora.

PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE:
Geyer's sedge often increases or invades after a fire [23,124,141], sometimes flowering and producing seed the year after a fire [134]. However, the ability of Geyer's sedge to recolonize or regrow after a fire seems to depend largely on severity of the fire. Geyer's sedge sprouted more heavily in light surface burn areas than in severe surface burns or areas burned by crown fires in Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming [139]. According to another study in Wyoming, Geyer's sedge cover was higher in plots after moderate burns than on unburned and severely burned plots. However, Geyer's sedge was one of the most important postfire species in the severe burn, as well as one of the most abundant species in the moderate burn sites [41]. In central Idaho, Geier-Hayes [53] found that Geyer's sedge cover was lower on plots clearcut and broadcast burned than on unburned clearcut plots. This effect was greatest at the highest elevation site, which also was subjected to the highest intensity burn. The ability of Geyer's sedge to recolonize from seeds in the soil at burned sites may also be affected by fire severity. Seeds collected from burned sites in Yellowstone National Park and subjected to heat treatments survived temperatures of 212 degrees Fahrenheit (100º C) for many sites, but never survived a treatment of  302 degrees Fahrenheit (150º C). The number of seeds per area for Geyer's sedge was generally higher in unburned vs. burn sites; survival in burned areas varied among habitat types [30]. 

Response of Geyer's sedge after fire in different habitat types is dependent largely on fire severity. On a site in the dry phase of the Douglas-fir/ninebark type in western Montana, Geyer's sedge decreased in cover 5 years after stand-replacing wildfires and clearcuts with broadcast burning. In other habitats and phases it generally increased in cover after low severity broadcast burning, clearcutting, or scarification [13]. In Douglas-fir forest in south-central Idaho, Geyer's sedge decreased after a severe prescribed burn [96]. Geyer's sedge was absent from the plots 1 year after the fire, and after 7 years had grown in to roughly half its preburn cover. Geyer's sedge recovered quickly on recently burned areas in the Douglas-fir/Geyer's sedge/mountain snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus) type in Idaho but decreased in higher elevation sites after a severe burn [119]. Geyer's sedge cover and frequency decreased in burned stands in the Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type in northern Idaho [27].  In warm, dry grand fir sites in northeastern Oregon, per cent cover of Geyer's sedge increased within 5 years after moderate and severe burns [77]. Geyer's sedge cover decreased after severe burns on Douglas-fir sites in the same area, but increased after low severity burns. Arno [10] found that Geyer's sedge cover often decreased with increasing intensity of burn in plots within shelterwood cuts in ponderosa pine forests with no-burn, low-consumption, and high consumption treatments. 

Frequency of occurrence and canopy cover of Geyer's sedge were similar on all plots in a study that compared vegetation among plots not recently burned, burned in 1932, and moderately and severely burned in 1974 in Grand Teton National Park in Wyoming [17]. In Yellowstone National Park, density of Geyer's sedge shoots following fire was affected by patch size of burns, but this effect could be related to fire severity, as larger burned areas are more likely to have burned with more intensity [139]. 

Response of Geyer's sedge to fire may be affected by competing understory species. Bunchgrasses resprouted more successfully than Geyer's sedge when sampled 1 year after a burn in Mesa Verde National Park in Colorado [46]. Canon [26] reported that relative cover of Geyer's sedge compared to forbs was lower on burned vs. unburned plots in aspen stands. In contrast, Johnston and Hendzel [78] found that Geyer's sedge was able to recover quickly after fire in conifer/aspen stands in Colorado, and dominated the understory in several plots.

On ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir communities in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon, Geyer's sedge cover and frequency were higher on unburned control sites than on prescribed burned, thinned, or thinned-and-burned sites. Geyer's sedge was determined to be an indicator species for unburned sites (P≤0.05). For further information on the effects of thinning and burning treatments on Geyer's sedge and 48 other species, see the Research Project Summary of Youngblood and others' [151] study.

DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE:
Lyon's Research Paper and the Research Project Summary Vegetation response to restoration treatments in ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir forests also provide information on prescribed fire and postfire response of plant community species including Geyer's sedge.

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Fire appears to be an important environmental influence on Geyer's sedge and may be a tool useful for improving its forage production. Fire suppression, combined with grazing, has caused an increase in conifer density and a reduction in Geyer's sedge and pinegrass cover in forested sites in the Blue Mountains in Oregon [1,60]. However, under frequent burning, Geyer's sedge can persist and increase under natural range conditions with 25% to 40% utilization every year [60]. Decreasing the amount of duff on the forest floor is one function of fire beneficial to Geyer's sedge. In both warm and cool aspect stands, Geyer's sedge percent cover was several times higher where duff depth was under 0.4 inch (1cm) than in areas with a duff layer over 0.4 inch (1cm) deep [56].

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

• IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE
• PALATABILITY
• NUTRITIONAL VALUE
• COVER VALUE
• VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

The following table summarizes information presented in the literature about forage value of Geyer's sedge for livestock and wildlife species.

Use of habitat types with Geyer's sedge: Some habitat types in which Geyer's sedge is codominant provide good forage for livestock and wildlife. The aspen/Geyer's sedge habitat type in Colorado, the undergrowth of which is strongly dominated by Geyer's sedge, provides fair summer-fall range for large ungulate wildlife species and cattle.  Forage production in this type varies from 400 to 800 pounds per acre (450-900 kg/ha) [71]. Stands in the subalpine fir/Geyer's sedge habitat type in Montana are used moderately by deer and elk in summer [108]. Livestock forage value in these stands is low. The Douglas-fir/Geyer's sedge habitat type has moderate potential for forage production for livestock, and moderate to high potential for forage for wildlife where it occurs near or on winter range [83]. 

Use in relation to fire: There is little information available about forage use specifically of Geyer's sedge on burned sites. According to one study conducted in the Caribou National Forest in Wyoming, Geyer's sedge was used by elk primarily on burned sites [26]. Fire suppression has reduced the habitat suitability and use by livestock and wildlife of forest types in the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon with Geyer's sedge as a major understory component. For example, fire-maintained ponderosa pine/pinegrass stands produce 500 to 600 pounds per acre (540-650 kg/ha) of forage in Geyer's sedge and pinegrass under 50% tree canopy cover. Where fire suppression has allowed fir to replace pine and the canopy cover to increase to 80%, forage production has decreased to 50 to 100 pounds per acre (55-110  kg/ha) [59]. 

Geyer's sedge is highly palatable to elk [14,129] but less palatable to deer [129,141]. Austin and others [14] reported that Geyer's sedge was highly rejected by deer. In the Flathead National Forest of Montana, Geyer's sedge was  highly palatable to elk relative to other species in the plant associations in which it occurred [48]. In this case, palatability was defined by the proportion of available forage used. Black bear find Geyer's sedge highly palatable in spring; palatability then declines throughout the year [129].

NUTRITIONAL VALUE:
In general, Geyer's sedge has fair nutritional value expressed as energy and protein.  Geyer's sedge provides good food value for elk, fair food value for mule deer, fair food value for whitetail deer, poor food value for birds, and fair to good food value for small mammals [39]. Skovlin [122] rated Geyer's sedge highest for sustained nutrient supply of the forage plants analyzed in that study.

Seasonal variation: The nutritional value of Geyer's sedge fluctuates seasonally, but fluctuations are less severe in Geyer's sedge than in many other species due to its evergreen nature. The protein content in Geyer's sedge is highest in spring [104,144] and declines by September. Phosphorus levels by late September were only minimally adequate for livestock nutrition requirements, but calcium was still adequate [104]. Skovlin [122] reported that crude protein levels declined less in Geyer's sedge than in other species, and phosphorus and calcium levels remained fair to good. Kreuger and Bedunah [84] found lower carbohydrate levels in Geyer's sedge roots in early spring than in the fall, indicating that Geyer's sedge uses these carbohydrate reserves for respiration in winter.

Management effects on nutritional value: Nutritional value of Geyer's sedge may be affected by grazing, silvicultural practices, and fire. In a study of domestic sheep grazing effects on understory species in northeastern Oregon, in vitro dry matter digestibility was higher in ungrazed plots than on plots grazed by sheep. Light spring grazing resulted in higher crude protein content in Geyer's sedge the following winter [31]. According to this same study, Geyer's sedge under a conifer overstory had higher crude protein levels than plants of the same species occurring in openings. Krueger and Bedunah [84] reported that total nonstructural carbohydrate levels in Geyer's sedge roots were higher in forested sites than in adjacent clearcuts. Crude protein levels in Geyer's sedge were similar between burned vs. unburned plots in aspen stands in Wyoming [26].

COVER VALUE:
Geyer's sedge has poor cover value for wild ungulates, poor to fair cover value for upland game birds, poor to good cover value for non-game upland birds, and fair to good cover value for small mammals [39]. Vegetation types with Geyer's sedge dominating the understory often have low structural diversity and species diversity. For example, fire-maintained open ponderosa pine forests with pinegrass and Geyer's sedge understory provide less value for pileated woodpeckers than forests developing under fire suppression because of the lack of snags housing carpenter ants for food and understory trees providing cover in the fire-maintained forests [60]. 

In a study of avian communities in riparian zones in Idaho, cover of Geyer's sedge was significantly higher (p = 0.01 or p= 0.05) in plots where certain bird species were observed, including mountain chickadee, ruby-crowned kinglet, yellow-rumped warbler, western tanager, pine siskin, and dark-eyed junco [40]. In this case the bird observations may be indicating an environmental gradient, rather than preference for Geyer's sedge, as Geyer's sedge was less common in plots where more water-dependent bird species were observed.

VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:  
Geyer's sedge has an extensive system of fine roots, making it effective at stabilizing soil [81,125,128]. However, Geyer's sedge rhizomes may be damaged easily in scarification [73]. Geyer's sedge is valuable for rehabilitating disturbed sites because it can tolerate high soil moisture stress and high soil temperature [81].  

Geyer's sedge often increases in cover after disturbance [136,153] by resprouting from rhizomes and seeding [95]. Geyer's sedge is highly resistant to trampling [109] and is able to increase in cover within a few years after disturbance from trampling [33]. See Fire Effects for information about the response of Geyer's sedge after fire.

OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Geyer's sedge is very drought-resistant [141,142] and can out-compete tree seedlings partially through low moisture requirements [142] and early use of plant available water in soil. Geyer's sedge competes strongly with tree seedlings and other plants due to its extensive rhizome and root system [128,129]. On dry forest sites Geyer's sedge and other graminoids may inhibit tree and shrub regeneration by depleting soil moisture before seedlings are established [129]. On sites where Geyer's sedge forms a dense sod layer, Geyer's sedge can prohibit natural regeneration or seedling growth of conifers unless sites are scarified [20,150]. 

Geyer's sedge in ponderosa pine forest range lands is highly susceptible to logging disturbance, such as that resulting from skidder use, because its rhizomes are easily displaced [52]. Grass cover, of which Geyer's sedge was a major component, was drastically lower 1 year after logging than before logging in ponderosa pine forests of eastern Oregon and Washington, but was restored nearly to original levels by 7 years after logging [49]. In contrast to these reports, cover of Geyer's sedge was lower on untreated plots than on plots that had undergone various silvicultural treatments in the Swan Valley of Montana [47]. 

The response of Geyer's sedge to chemical site preparation treatments varies with the compound used. Cover of Geyer's sedge was higher in stands treated with slashing, spraying with glyphosate, and spraying with  triclopyr ester as site preparation and conifer treatments, compared to untreated plots. The stand treated with both glyphosate and 2,4-D had a lower canopy cover of Geyer's sedge than the untreated plot, but had no plant kill of Geyer's sedge [63]. Cover of Geyer's sedge did not show any significant change after application of Tordon and Transline [112].

Riegel and others found that growth of Geyer's sedge in ponderosa pine forests is limited by nitrogen and water [113] and is controlled largely by competition for nutrients and water by tree roots [114]. In a separate study, Geyer's sedge growth increased after nitrogen and potassium fertilization, up to a treatment level of  200 pounds per acre (220 kg/ha) [81]. 

Utilization considerations: Studies do not all agree on the effect of grazing on Geyer's sedge forage production. In Douglas-fir/ninebark, Geyer's sedge cover was essentially the same in grazed and ungrazed plots, but production in grazed plots was twice that in ungrazed plots [152]. In contrast, Geyer's sedge under heavy stocking produced 74% less plant material than it did when it was protected from grazing [50].

Overgrazing over several decades has caused understory community composition to shift in many western forests, including a decrease in Geyer's sedge cover as it is replaced with more grazing-tolerant grasses. Geyer's sedge withstands grazing well because it reproduces from underground rhizomes and forms dense tufts or sod; however, continued heavy use can eventually lower Geyer's sedge cover [141]. Driscoll [42] found Geyer's sedge vigor, as indicated by flowering stalk production, was significantly lower on plants with 40% and 60% of their herbage removed, compared to plants with 20% removed. Because significant changes in vigor were noticeable in just 3 years, he indicated that heavy grazing over several years is likely to reduce cover of Geyer's sedge. Geyer's sedge may be replaced by forbs and pasture grasses in some areas in the intermountain West that have been heavily grazed by domestic sheep in the past, and in some cases may be absent from the understory altogether [119]. Because it often decreases under heavy grazing pressure, Geyer's sedge is an indicator of good range condition where it is dominant in the understory below ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon and southeastern Washington [58]. Under heavy grazing pressure Geyer's sedge is often replaced by pasture grasses in the Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type of the northern Rocky Mountains [27,28] and in quaking aspen/Geyer's sedge sites [102]. 

In some cases Geyer's sedge may respond favorably to grazing. Powell [109] stated that heavy grazing by domestic sheep would cause an increase in cover of Geyer's sedge relative to the variety of palatable forbs present in the understory of the quaking aspen/Fendler meadowrue (Thalictrum fendleri) community type in Colorado.  Zimmerman [153] found that livestock grazing had no adverse influences on the reproduction of Geyer's sedge, and that cover of Geyer's sedge was the same in grazed and ungrazed stands in the Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type in Idaho. However, frequency of Geyer's sedge was slightly higher in grazed stands.

Carex geyeri: REFERENCES

1. Agee, James K. 1996. Fire in the Blue Mountains: a history, ecology, and research agenda. In: Jaindl, R. G.; Quigley, T. M., eds. Search for a solution: sustaining the land, people and economy of the Blue Mountains. Washington, DC: American Forests: 119-145. [28827]

2. Agee, James K.; Maruoka, Kathleen R. 1994. Historical fire regimes of the Blue Mountains. BMNRI-TN-1. La Grande, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Blue Mountains Natural Resources Institute. 4 p. [23867]

3. Alexander, Robert R. 1986. Classification of the forest vegetation of Wyoming. Res. Note RM-466. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 10 p. [304]

4. Alexander, Robert R. 1987. Classification of the forest vegetation of Colorado by habitat type and community type. Res. Note RM-478. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 14 p. [9092]

5. Alexander, Robert R.; Hoffman, George R.; Wirsing, John M. 1986. Forest vegetation of the Medicine Bow National Forest in southeastern Wyoming: a habitat type classification. Res. Pap. RM-271. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 39 p. [307]

6. Aller, Alvin R.; Fosberg, Maynard A.; LaZelle, Monta C.; Falen, Anita L. 1981. Plant communities and soils of north slopes in the Palouse region of eastern Washington and northern Idaho. Northwest Science. 55(4): 248-262. [2823]

7. Allman, Verl Phillips. 1953. A preliminary study of the vegetation in an exclosure in the chaparral of the Wasatch Mountains, Utah. Utah Academy Proceedings. 30: 63-78. [9096]

8. Anderson, E. William. 1956. Some soil-plant relationships in eastern Oregon. Journal of Range Management. 9(4): 171-175. [314]

9. Arno, Stephen F. 1980. Forest fire history in the Northern Rockies. Journal of Forestry. 78(8): 460-465. [11990]

10. Arno, Stephen F. 1999. Undergrowth response, shelterwood cutting unit. In: Smith, Helen Y.; Arno, Stephen F., eds. Eighty-eight years of change in a managed ponderosa pine forest. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-23. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 36-37. [+ Appendix C: summary of vegetation changes in shelterwood cutting unit]. [38264]

11. Arno, Stephen F. 2000. Fire in western forest ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 97-120. [36984]

12. Arno, Stephen F.; Gruell, George E. 1983. Fire history at the forest-grassland ecotone in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management. 36(3): 332-336. [342]

13. Arno, Stephen F.; Simmerman, Dennis G.; Keane, Robert E. 1985. Forest succession on four habitat types in western Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-177. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 74 p. [349]

14. Austin, D. D.; Urness, Philip J. 1982. Vegetal responses and big game values after thinning regenerating lodgepole pine. The Great Basin Naturalist. 42(4): 512-516. [8354]

15. Baisan, Christopher H.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1990. Fire history on a desert mountain range: Rincon Mountain Wilderness, Arizona, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 20: 1559-1569. [14986]

16. Baker, William L. 1984. A preliminary classification of the natural vegetation of Colorado. The Great Basin Naturalist. 44(4): 647-676. [380]

17. Barmore, William J., Jr.; Taylor, Dale; Hayden, Peter. 1976. Ecological effects and biotic succession following the 1974 Waterfalls Canyon Fire in Grand Teton National Park. Research Progress Report 1974-1975. [Moose, WY: Grand Teton National Park]. Unpublished report on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 99 p. [16109]

18. Bell, Jack H.; Lauer, Jerry L.; Peek, James M. 1992. Habitat use patterns of white-tailed deer, Umatilla River, Oregon. Northwest Science. 66(3): 160-171. [19276]

19. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

20. Blake, John; Crooker, Dave. 1986. Growth response of ponderosa pine following release from grass competition. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Boyd, Raymond J.; Breuer, David W.; Miller, Daniel L., compilers/eds. Weed control for forest productivity in the Interior West: Symposium proceedings; 1985 Feb. 5-7; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 145-146. [470]

21. Blanchard, Bonnie M. 1980. Grizzly bear - habitat relationships in the Yellowstone area. International Conference on Bear Research and Management. 5: 118-123. [8386]

22. Bradley, Anne F.; Fischer, William C.; Noste, Nonan V. 1992. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of eastern Idaho and western Wyoming. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-290. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 92 p. [19557]

23. Bradley, Anne F.; Noste, Nonan V.; Fischer, William C. 1992. Fire ecology of forests and woodlands in Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-287. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 128 p. [18211]

24. Brown, H. E.; Thompson, J. R. 1965. Summer water use by aspen, spruce, and grassland in western Colorado. Journal of Forestry. 63: 756-760. [15600]

25. Burkhardt, Wayne J.; Tisdale, E. W. 1976. Causes of juniper invasion in southwestern Idaho. Ecology. 57: 472-484. [565]

26. Canon, Stephen Kemble. 1985. Habitat selection, foraging behavior, and dietary nutrition of elk in burned vs unburned aspen forest. Logan, UT: Utah State University. 110 p. Thesis. [599]

27. Cholewa, Anita F. 1977. Successional relationships of vegetational composition to logging, burning, and grazing in the Douglas-fir/Physocarpus habitat type of northern Idaho. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 65 p. plus appendices. Thesis. [29853]

28. Cholewa, Anita F.; Johnson, Frederic D. 1983. Secondary succession in the Pseudotsuga menziesii/Physocarpus malvaceus association. Northwest Science. 57(4): 273-282. [11402]

29. Clagg, Harry B. 1975. Fire ecology in high-elevation forests in Colorado. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University. 137 p. Thesis. [113]

30. Clark, David Lee. 1991. The effect of fire on Yellowstone ecosystem seed banks. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 115 p. Thesis. [36504]

31. Clark, Patrick E.; Krueger, William C.; Bryant, Larry D.; Thomas, David R. 2000. Livestock grazing effects on forage quality of elk winter range. Journal of Range Management. 53(1): 97-105. [38666]

32. Clarke, Sharon E.; Bryce, Sandra A., eds. 1997. Hierarchical subdivisions of the Columbia Plateau and Blue Mountains ecoregions, Oregon and Washington. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-395. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 114 p. [28536]

33. Cole, David N. 1988. Disturbance and recovery of trampled montane grassland and forests in Montana. Res. Pap. INT-389. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 37 p. [3622]

34. Cooper, Stephen V.; Neiman, Kenneth E.; Roberts, David W. 1991 [Revised]. Forest habitat types of northern Idaho: a second approximation. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-236. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 143 p. [14792]

35. Cooper, Stephen V.; Neiman, Kenneth E.; Steele, Robert; Roberts, David W. 1987. Forest habitat types of northern Idaho: a second approximation. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-236. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 135 p. [867]

36. Crouch, Glenn L. 1986. Effects of thinning pole-sized lodgepole pine on understory vegetation and large herbivore activity in central Colorado. Res. Pap. RM-268. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 10 p. [8353]

37. Davis, Dan; Butterfield, Bart. 1991. The Bitterroot Grizzly Bear Evaluation Area: A report to the Bitterroot Technical Review Team. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 56 p. [30041]

38. DeVelice, Robert L.; Ludwig, John A.; Moir, William H.; Ronco, Frank, Jr. 1986. A classification of forest habitat types of northern New Mexico and southern Colorado. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-131. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 59 p. [781]

39. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The Plant Information Network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]

40. Douglas, David C.; Ratti, John T. 1984. Avian habitat associations in riparian zones of the Centennial Mountains and surrounding areas, Idaho. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Department of Zoology, Wildlife Biology. 125 p. [14928]

41. Doyle, Kathleen M.; Knight, Dennis H.; Taylor, Dale L.; Barmore, William J., Jr.; Benedict, James M. 1998. Seventeen years of forest succession following the Waterfalls Canyon Fire in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 8(1): 45-55. [29072]

42. Driscoll, Richard S. 1957. Effects of intensity and date of herbage removal on herbage production of elk sedge. Journal of Range Management. 10: 212. [16142]

43. Eddleman, Lee; McLean, Alastair. 1969. Herbage--its production and use within the coniferous forest. In: Taber, Richard D., ed. Coniferous forests of the northern Rocky Mountains: Proceedings of the 1968 symposium; 1968 September 17-20; Missoula, MT. Missoula, MT: University of Montana Foundation, Center for Natural Resources: 179-196. [7545]

44. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

45. Fernald, Merritt Lyndon. 1950. Gray's manual of botany. [Corrections supplied by R. C. Rollins]. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press. 1632 p. (Dudley, Theodore R., gen. ed.; Biosystematics, Floristic & Phylogeny Series; vol. 2). [14935]

46. Floyd-Hanna, Lisa; DaVega, Anne; Hanna, David; Romme, William H. 1997. Chapin 5 Fire vegetation monitoring and mitigation: First year report. [Mesa Verde, CO]: [U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Mesa Verde National Park]. Unpublished report on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 7 p. [+ appendices]. [34181]

47. Freedman, June D.; Habeck, James R. 1985. Fire, logging, and white-tailed deer interrelationships in the Swan Valley, northwestern Montana. In: Lotan, James E.; Brown, James K., compilers. Fire's effects on wildlife habitat--symposium proceedings; 1984 March 21; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-186. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 23-35. [8319]

48. Gaffney, William S. 1941. The effects of winter elk browsing, South Fork of the Flathead River, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management. 5(4): 427-453. [5028]

49. Garrison, G. A. 1960. Recovery of ponderosa pine range in eastern Oregon and eastern Washington by seventh year after logging. In: Proceedings, Society of American Foresters annual meeting: 137-139. [16881]

50. Garrison, George A. 1966. A preliminary study of response of plant reserves to systems and intensities of grazing on mountain rangeland in northwest U.S.A. In: Proceedings, 10th international grassland congress; 1966; Helsinki, Finland. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: 937-940. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [996]

51. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; Lewis, Mont E.; Smith, Dixie R. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]

52. Garrison, George A.; Rummell, Robert S. 1951. First-year effects of logging on ponderosa pine forest range lands of Oregon and Washington. Journal of Forestry. 49(10): 708-713. [16711]

53. Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. Vegetation response to helicopter logging and broadcast burning in Douglas-fir habitat types at Silver Creek, central Idaho. Res. Pap. INT-405. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 24 p. [6810]

54. Gleason, Henry A.; Cronquist, Arthur. 1991. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. New York: New York Botanical Garden. 910 p. [20329]

55. Gruell, G. E.; Loope, L. L. 1974. Relationships among aspen, fire, and ungulate browsing in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 33 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Region. [3862]

56. Habeck, James R. 1976. Forests, fuels, and fire in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness, Idaho. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 305-353. [8185]

57. Habeck, James R. 1987. Present-day vegetation in the northern Rocky Mountains. In: Contributions to a symposium on the evolution of the modern flora of the northern Rocky Mountains. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 74(4): 804-840. [3971]

58. Hall, Frederick C. 1973. Plant communities of the Blue Mountains in eastern Oregon and southeastern Washington. R6 Area Guide 3-1. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 82 p. [1059]

59. Hall, Frederick C. 1977. Ecology of natural underburning in the Blue Mountains of Oregon. R6-ECOL-79-001. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 11 p. [8481]

60. Hall, Frederick C. 1980. Fire history--Blue Mountains, Oregon. In: Stokes, Marvin A.; Dieterich, John H., technical coordinators. Proceedings of the fire history workshop; 1980 October 20-24; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-81. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 75-81. [12817]

61. Hall, Frederick C. 1988. Opportunities for enhancing livestock forage on forestland. In: Schmidt, Wyman C., compiler. Proceedings--future forests of the Mountain West: a stand culture symposium; 1986 September 29 - October 3; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-243. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 48-54. [5069]

62. Hall, Frederick C. 1998. Pacific Northwest ecoclass codes for seral and potential natural communities. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-418. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 290 p. [7650]

63. Hann, Wendel J. 1986. Evaluation of site preparation and conifer release treatments in north Idaho shrubfields. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Boyd, Raymond J.; Breuer, David W.; Miller, Daniel L., compilers/eds. Weed control for forest productivity in the Interior West: Symposium proceedings; 1985 February 5-7; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 115-119. [1074]

64. Harrington, H. D. 1964. Manual of the plants of Colorado. 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: The Swallow Press, Inc. 666 p. [6851]

65. Hess, Karl; Alexander, Robert R. 1986. Forest vegetation of the Arapaho and Roosevelt National Forests in central Colorado: a habitat type classification. Res. Pap. RM-266. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 48 p. [1141]

66. Hess, Karl; Wasser, Clinton H. 1982. Grassland, shrubland, and forestland habitat types of the White River-Arapaho National Forest. Final Report. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 335 p. [1142]

67. Heyerdahl, Emily K.; Berry, Dawn; Agee, James K. 1994. Fire history database of the western United States. Final report. Interagency agreement: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency DW12934530; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service PNW-93-0300; University of Washington 61-2239. Seattle, WA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pacific Northwest Research Station; University of Washington, College of Forest Resources. 28 p. [+ appendices]. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [27979]

68. Hironaka, M.; Fosberg, M. A.; Winward, A. H. 1983. Sagebrush-grass habitat types of southern Idaho. Bulletin Number 35. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, Forest, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station. 44 p. [1152]

69. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]

70. Hoffman, George R.; Alexander, Robert R. 1980. Forest vegetation of the Routt National Forest in northwestern Colorado: a habitat classification. Res. Pap. RM-221. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 41 p. [1179]

71. Hoffman, George R.; Alexander, Robert R. 1983. Forest vegetation of the White River National Forest in western Colorado: a habitat type classification. Res. Pap. RM-249. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 36 p. [1178]

72. Holechek, Jerry L.; Berry, Timothy J.; Vavra, Martin. 1987. Grazing system influences on cattle performance on mountain range. Journal of Range Management. 40(1): 55-59. [15347]

73. Hungerford, Roger D. 1986. Vegetation response to stand cultural operations on small stem lodgepole pine stands in Montana. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Boyd, Raymond J.; Breuer, David W.; Miller, Daniel L., compilers/eds. Weed control for forest productivity in the Interior West: Symposium proceedings; 1985 February 5-7; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 63-71. [5896]

74. Hurd, Emerenciana G.; Shaw, Nancy L.; Mastrogiuseppe, Joy; [and others]. 1998. Field guide to Intermountain sedges. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-10. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 282 p. [29125]

75. Johnson, Charles G., Jr.; Clausnitzer, Roderick R.; Mehringer, Peter J.; Oliver, Chadwick D. 1994. Biotic and abiotic processes of Eastside ecosystems: the effects of management on plant and community ecology, and on stand and landscape vegetation dynamics. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-322. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 66 p. (Everett, Richard L., assessment team leader; Eastside forest ecosystem health assessment; Hessburg, Paul F., science team leader and tech. ed., Volume III: assessment). [23002]

76. Johnson, Charles G., Jr.; Simon, Steven A. 1987. Plant associations of the Wallowa-Snake Province: Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. R6-ECOL-TP-255A-86. Baker, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. 399 p. [9600]

77. Johnson, Charles Grier, Jr. 1998. Vegetation response after wildfires in national forests of northeastern Oregon. R6-NR-ECOL-TP-06-98. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 128 p. plus appendices. [30061]

78. Johnston, B. C.; Hendzel, L. 1985. Examples of aspen treatment, succession, and management in western Colorado. Lakewood, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region. 164 p. [18670]

79. Kartesz, John T. 1999. A synonymized checklist and atlas with biological attributes for the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. 1st ed. In: Kartesz, John T.; Meacham, Christopher A. Synthesis of the North American flora (Windows Version 1.0), [CD-ROM]. Chapel Hill, NC: North Carolina Botanical Garden (Producer). In cooperation with: The Nature Conservancy; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service; U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. [36715]

80. Klebenow, Donald A. 1965. A montane forest winter deer habitat in western Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management. 29(1): 27-33. [8430]

81. Klock, G. O. 1969. Some autecological characteristics of elk sedge. Res. Pap. PNW-106. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 5 p. [15870]

82. Komarkova, Vera. 1986. Habitat types on selected parts of the Gunnison and Uncompahgre National Forests. Final report: Contract No. 28-K2-234. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 270 p. [1369]

83. Komarkova, Vera; Alexander, Robert R.; Johnston, Barry C. 1988. Forest vegetation of the Gunnison and parts of the Uncompahgre National Forests: a preliminary habitat type classification. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-163. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 65 p. [5798]

84. Krueger, Janice K.; Bedunah, Donald J. 1988. Influence of forest site on total nonstructural carbohydrate levels of pinegrass, elk sedge, and snowberry. Journal of Range Management. 41(2): 144-149. [3532]

85. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. United States [Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States]. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 1:3,168,000; colored. [3455]

86. Kufeld, Roland C. 1973. Foods eaten by the Rocky Mountain elk. Journal of Range Management. 26(2): 106-113. [1385]

87. Kufeld, Roland C. 1983. Responses of elk, mule deer, cattle, and vegetation to burning, spraying and chaining of Gambel oak rangeland. Tech. Publ. 34. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado Division of Wildlife. 47 p. [253]

88. Kufeld, Roland C.; Wallmo, O. C.; Feddema, Charles. 1973. Foods of the Rocky Mountain mule deer. Res. Pap. RM-111. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 31 p. [1387]

89. Lackschewitz, Klaus. 1991. Vascular plants of west-central Montana--identification guidebook. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-227. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 648 p. [13798]

90. Lambeth, Ron; Hironaka M. 1982. Columbia ground squirrel in subalpine forest openings in central Idaho. Journal of Range Management. 35(4): 493-497. [8269]

91. Laven, R. D.; Omi, P. N.; Wyant, J. G.; Pinkerton, A. S. 1980. Interpretation of fire scar data from a ponderosa pine ecosystem in the central Rocky Mountains, Colorado. In: Stokes, Marvin A.; Dieterich, John H., tech. coords. Proceedings of the fire history workshop; 1980 October 20-24; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-81. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 46-49. [7183]

92. Leege, Thomas A., compiler. 1984. Guidelines for evaluating and managing summer elk habitat in northern Idaho. Wildlife Bull. No. 11; Federal Aid Project W-160-R. Boise, ID: Idaho Fish and Game Department. 37 p. [13681]

93. Lewis, Monte E. 1958. Carex -- its distribution and importance in Utah. In: Brigham Young University Science Bulletin: Biological Series. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 1(2): 1-4. [18788]

94. Lillybridge, Terry R.; Kovalchik, Bernard L.; Williams, Clinton K.; Smith, Bradley G. 1995. Field guide for forested plant associations of the Wenatchee National Forest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-359. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 335 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Wenatchee National Forest. [29851]

95. Lotan, James E. 1986. Silvicultural management of competing vegetation. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Boyd, Raymond J.; Breuer, David W.; Miller, Daniel L., compilers/eds. Weed control for forest productivity in the Interior West: Symposium proceedings; 1985 February 5-7; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 9-16. [1474]

96. Lyon, L. Jack. 1971. Vegetal development following prescribed burning of Douglas-fir in south-central Idaho. Res. Pap. INT-105. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 30 p. [1495]

97. Marcum, C. Les. 1979. Summer-fall food habits and forage preferences of a western Montana elk herd. In: Boyce, Mark S.; Hayden-Wing, Larry D., eds. North American elk: ecology, behavior and management. Laramie, WY: The University of Wyoming: 54-62. [39437]

98. Mauk, Ronald L.; Henderson, Jan A. 1984. Coniferous forest habitat types of northern Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-170. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 89 p. [1553]

99. Meinecke, E. P. 1929. Quaking aspen: A study in applied forest pathology. Tech. Bull. No. 155. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [26669]

100. Miller, Richard F.; Rose, Jeffery A. 1995. Historic expansion of Juniperus occidentalis (western juniper) in southeastern Oregon. The Great Basin Naturalist. 55(1): 37-45. [25666]

101. Mueggler, Walter F. 1988. Aspen community types of the Intermountain Region. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-250. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 135 p. [5902]

102. Mueggler, Walter F.; Campbell, Robert B., Jr. 1986. Aspen community types of Utah. Res. Pap. INT-362. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 69 p. [1714]

103. Munz, Philip A.; Keck, David D. 1973. A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1905 p. [6155]

104. Paulsen, Harold A., Jr. 1969. Forage values on a mountain grassland-aspen range in western Colorado. Journal of Range Management. 22: 102-107. [1842]

105. Payne, Gene F. 1973. Vegetative rangeland types in Montana. Bull. 671. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University, Montana Agricultural Experiment Station. 15 p. [1847]

106. Paysen, Timothy E.; Ansley, R. James; Brown, James K.; Gottfried, Gerald J.; Haase, Sally M.; Harrington, Michael G.; Narog, Marcia G.; Sackett, Stephen S.; Wilson, Ruth C. 2000. Fire in western shrubland, woodland, and grassland ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 121-159. [36978]

107. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Bureau of Forestry. 2001. Pennsylvania Natural Diversity Inventory: plants, [Online]. Available: http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/forestry/pndi/fullplants.asp [2003, January24]. [38219]

108. Pfister, Robert D.; Kovalchik, Bernard L.; Arno, Stephen F.; Presby, Richard C. 1977. Forest habitat types of Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-34. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 174 p. [1878]

109. Powell, David C. 1988. Aspen community types of the Pike and San Isabel National Forests in south-central Colorado. R2-ECOL-88-01. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region. 254 p. [15285]

110. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]

111. Reese, Jerry B.; Mohr, Francis R.; Dean, Ronald E.; Klabunde, Thomas. 1976. Teton Wilderness Fire Management Plan. Part I: Ecological and resource description of the Teton Wilderness. Jackson, WY: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Bridger-Teton National Forest. 123 p. [21064]

112. Rice, P. M.; Toney, J. C. 1996. Plant population responses to broadcast herbicide applications for spotted knapweed control. Down to Earth. 51(2): 14-19. [27754]

113. Riegel, Gregg M.; Miller, Richard F.; Krueger, William C. 1991. Understory vegetation response to increasing water and nitrogen levels in a Pinus ponderosa forest in northeastern Oregon. Northwest Science. 65(1): 10-15. [15571]

114. Riegel, Gregg M.; Miller, Richard F.; Krueger, William C. 1992. Competition for resources between understory vegetation and overstory Pinus ponderosa in northeastern Oregon. Ecological Applications. 2(1): 71-85. [19657]

115. Riggs, Robert Alexander. 1977. Winter habitat use patterns and populations of bighorn sheep in Glacier National Park. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 87 p. Thesis. [112]

116. Romme, William H. 1982. Fire and landscape diversity in subalpine forests of Yellowstone National Park. Ecological Monographs. 52(2): 199-221. [9696]

117. Sapsis, David B. 1990. Ecological effects of spring and fall prescribed burning on basin big sagebrush/Idaho fescue--bluebunch wheatgrass communities. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 105 p. Thesis. [16579]

118. Saunders, Jack K., Jr. 1955. Food habits and range use of the Rocky Mountain goat in the Crazy Mountains, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management. 19(4): 429-437. [484]

119. Schlatterer, Edward F. 1972. A preliminary description of plant communities found on the Sawtooth, White Cloud, Boulder and Pioneer Mountains. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. Unpublished paper on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 111 p. [2076]

120. Shiflet, Thomas N., ed. 1994. Rangeland cover types of the United States. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management. 152 p. [23362]

121. Simpson, Michael L. 1990. The subalpine fir/beargrass habitat type: Succession and management. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 134 p. Thesis. [13464]

122. Skovlin, Jon M. 1967. Fluctuations in forage quality on summer range in the Blue Mountains. Res. Pap. PNW-44. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 20 p. [16347]

123. Smith, Jane Kapler. 1998. Presettlement fire regimes in northern Idaho. In: Close, Kelly; Bartlette, Roberta A., eds. Fire management under fire (adapting to change): Proceedings, 1994 Interior West Fire Council meeting and program; 1994 November 1-4; Coeur d'Alene, ID. Fairfield, WA: Interior West Fire Council: 83-92. [29063]

124. Smith, Jane Kapler; Fischer, William C. 1997. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of northern Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-363. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 142 p. [27992]

125. Spence, Liter E. 1937. Root studies of important range plants of the Boise River watershed. Journal of Forestry. 35: 747-754. [77]

126. Steele, Robert; Arno, Stephen F.; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1986. Wildfire patterns change in central Idaho's ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir forest. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 1(1): 16-18. [6840]

127. Steele, Robert; Cooper, Stephen V.; Ondov, David M.; Roberts, David W.; Pfister, Robert D. 1983. Forest habitat types of eastern Idaho-western Wyoming. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-144. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 122 p. [2230]

128. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1994. The Douglas-fir/white spirea habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-305. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 81 p. [23481]

129. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1995. Major Douglas-fir habitat types of central Idaho: a summary of succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-331. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 23 p. [26587]

130. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species comprising secondary plant succession in Northern Rocky Mountain forests. FEIS workshop: Postfire regeneration. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 10 p. [20090]

131. Stubbendieck, J.; Hatch, Stephan L.; Hirsch, Kathie J. 1986. North American range plants. 3rd ed. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. 465 p. [2270]

132. Sund, Sharren Kay. 1988. Post-fire regeneration of Pinus albicaulis in western Montana: patterns of occurrence and site characteristics. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado. 63 p. Thesis. [25933]

133. Svejcar, Tony. 1986. Comparative water relations of Carex geyeri and Calamagrostis rubescens. Botanical Gazette. 147(1): 71-77. [35461]

134. Taylor, Dale L. 1969. Biotic succession of lodgepole pine forests of fire origin in Yellowstone National Park. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming. 320 p. Thesis. [9481]

135. Tiedeman, James A.; Francis, Richard E.; Terwilliger, Charles, Jr.; Carpenter, Len H. 1987. Shrub-steppe habitat types of Middle Park, Colorado. Res. Pap. RM-273. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 20 p. [2329]

136. Topik, Christopher. 1989. Plant association and management guide for the grand fir zone, Gifford Pinchot National Forest. R6-Ecol-TP-006-88. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 110 p. [11361]

137. Tuhy, Joel S.; Jensen, Sherman. 1982. Riparian classification for the Upper Salmon/Middle Fork Salmon River drainages, Idaho. Final report. Smithfield, UT: White Horse Associates. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 153 p. [8380]

138. Turner, George T.; Paulsen, Harold A., Jr. 1976. Management of mountain grasslands in the Central Rockies: the status of our knowledge. Res. Pap. RM-161. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 24 p. [2372]

139. Turner, Monica G.; Romme, William H.; Gardner, Robert H.; Hargrove, William W. 1997. Effects of fire size and pattern on early succession in Yellowstone National Park. Ecological Monographs. 67(4): 411-433. [27851]

140. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. 1981. Sawtooth Wilderness and Sawtooth Addition: Natural Fire Management Plan. [Revised from 1978]. Ogden, UT. 72 p. [21256]

141. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1937. Range plant handbook. Washington, DC. 532 p. [2387]

142. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2008. PLANTS Database, [Online]. Available: https://plants.usda.gov /. [34262]

143. Van Dyke, Fred G.; Probert, Brenda L.; Rozema, Jennifer J. 1994. Vegetation characteristics of elk summer range in south-central Montana. In: Despain, Don G., ed. Plants and their environments: proceedings of the 1st biennial scientific conference on the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem; 1991 September 16-17; Yellowstone National Park, WY. Tech. Rep. NPS/NRYELL/NRTR. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Region: 285-300. [26292]

144. Wallmo, O. C.; Gill, R. Bruce. 1973. Middle Park deer study: physical characteristics and food habits. In: Federal Aid Completion Report. Project W-38-R-27: WP-14; J-4. Denver, CO: Colorado Division of Wildlife: 83-103. [2445]

145. Weber, William A.; Wittmann, Ronald C. 1996. Colorado flora: eastern slope. 2nd ed. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado. 524 p. [27572]

146. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]

147. Woodard, Paul M. 1983. Germination success of Pinus contorta Dougl. and Picea engelmannii Parry on burned seedbeds. Forest Ecology and Management. 5: 301-306. [7486]

148. Young, J. A.; Hedrick, D. W.; Keniston, R. F. 1967. Forest cover and logging--herbage and browse production in the mixed coniferous forest of northeastern Oregon. Journal of Forestry. 65: 807-813. [16290]

149. Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A.; Eckert, Richard E., Jr. 1984. Successional patterns and productivity potentials of the sagebrush and salt desert ecosystems. In: Developing strategies for rangeland management: a report. Westview Special Studies in Agriculture Science and Policy Series. Boulder, CO: Westview Press: 1259-1299. [2669]

150. Youngblood, Andrew P.; Mauk, Ronald L. 1985. Coniferous forest habitat types of central and southern Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-187. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 89 p. [2684]

151. Youngblood, Andrew; Metlen, Kerry L.; Coe, Kent. 2006. Changes in stand structure and composition after restoration treatments in low elevation dry forests of northeastern Oregon. Forest Ecology and Management. 234(1-3): 143-163. [64992]

152. Zimmerman, G. T.; Neuenschwander, L. F. 1984. Livestock grazing influences on community structure, fire intensity, and fire frequency within the Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type. Journal of Range Management. 37(2): 104-110. [10103]

153. Zimmerman, Gordon Thomas. 1979. Livestock grazing, fire, and their interactions within the Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type of northern Idaho. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 145 p. Thesis. [6724]