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Leymus innovatus

Downy ryegrass growing in Sheep River Provincial Park, Alberta. Creative Commons image by David.

SUMMARY

Table of Contents

• SUMMARY
• INTRODUCTION
• TAXONOMY
• SYNONYMS
• LIFE FORM
• DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
• GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
• SITE CHARACTERISTICS
• PLANT COMMUNITIES
• BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
• SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
• REGENERATION PROCESSES
• Vegetative Reproduction and Regeneration
• Pollination and Breeding System
• Seed Production
• Seed Dispersal
• Seed Banking
• Germination and Seedling Establishment
• Plant Growth and Mortality
• SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
• FIRE ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
• IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECTS
• FIRE ADAPTATIONS AND PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE
• FUEL CHARACTERISTICS
• FIRE REGIMES
• FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
• OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
• FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS
• OTHER STATUS
• IMPORTANCE TO WILDLIFE AND LIVESTOCK
• VALUE FOR RESTORATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER USES
• MANAGEMENT UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE
• APPENDIX
• REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION

Leymus innovatus subsp. innovatus [7,9,35,48,53] (downy ryegrass, typical subspecies)
Leymus innovatus subsp. velutinus (Bowdan) Tzvelev [7,9,35,53] (northern downy ryegrass)

Hybrids: Hybridization is common among the Leymus and Elymus genera [3,47]. Natural downy ryegrass hybrids include these named entities:

• ×Agroelymus bowdenii (Boivin) Barkw. (Bowden’s agroelymus), from crossing with Pascopyrum smithii (western wheatgrass) [46,90,106]
• ×Elyleymus hirtiflorus (Hitchc.) Barkw. (Canadian wildrye), from crossing with Elymus trachycaulus (slender wheatgrass) [6,46,90,106]
• ×Elyleymus turneri (Lepage) Barkw. & Dewey (Turner wildrye), from crossing with Elymus lanceolatus subsp. lanceolatus (thickspike wheatgrass) [46,90,106]

• Elymus alaskanus (Alaskan wheatgrass) × Leymus innovatus [90]
• Leymus ambiguous (Colorado wildrye) × Leymus innovatus [27]

Common names are used throughout this Species Review. For scientific names of plants and wildlife mentioned in this review and links to other FEIS Species Reviews, see table A1 and table A2.

For Leymus innovatus subsp. innovatus:
Elymus innovatus Beal var. glabratus Bowden [50]

For Leymus innovatus subsp. velutinus:
Elymus innovatus Beal var. velutinus Bowden [50]
Leymus velutinus (Bowden) A. Love & D. Love (documented in [106])

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE

Figure 1—Distribution of downy ryegrass. Map courtesy of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service [106] [2021, February 21]. Downy ryegrass also occurs in Nunavut [38]. Its distribution in Colorado was unverified as of 2021 [52].

Downy ryegrass is distributed from northern Alaska east to Nunavut and Ontario and south to Wyoming [41,52] (fig. 1). It is rare in Saskatchewan and Montana and adventive in northeastern Wyoming and northwestern South Dakota [52].

The typical subspecies' distribution overlays that of the species (fig. 1) [52]. Populations of the typical subspecies in the Black Hills are disjunct from more continuous populations farther north [9]. Northern downy wildrye is the rarer of the two subspecies [7,9]. It occurs in Alaska, Yukon, the Northwest Territories [7,9,52], and Nunavut. It has been collected as far north as Banks Island, Nunavut, in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago [38].

States and provinces:
United States: AK, MT, SD, WY [106]
Canada: AB, BC, MB, NT, NU, ON, SK, YT [83,106]

Soil moisture on sites with downy ryegrass ranges from wet [20,75] to dry [20,59,83,84]. Downy ryegrass is most common in mesic to dry soils [20,89], but it also grows near stream- and riverbanks [7,8,30,31,47,48,60]. In foothill lodgepole pine forests of western Alberta, downy ryegrass is common to dominant in mesic to dry soils, while bluejoint is common to dominant in moist to mesic soils [21]. Downy ryegrass is considered an indicator species for very dry to dry white spruce forests of Saskatchewan and Manitoba [84]. However, it is listed as a possible wetland species in Alaska [82]. In the western United States, downy ryegrass is most common in moist to mesic subalpine forests [75].

Downy ryegrass grows in moderately poor to nutrient-rich soils [20,83] and in both alkaline [7] and acidic [51,96] soils. Near Slave Lake in boreal Alberta, white spruce-quaking aspen/downy ryegrass forests occupy mesic, medium-nutrient, acidic tills [58].

Downy ryegrass grows in soils of all textures [69]—including rocky to gravelly [7,47,48,83], sandy [7,8,48,50,83], and silty [7,8,48] soils—and in unconsolidated substrates including rapidly to moderately drained till [20,58,69,84] and colluvium [20,69,83]. In Manitoba, downy ryegrass is “widespread” on driftline soils and on sandy lakeshores, including upper beaches of Lake Manitoba [94].

Downy ryegrass often grows in calcareous substrates [18,67,83]. For example, it grows in limestone-derived soils in the south Brooks Range of Alaska [18] and the Black Hills [67]. It grows in calcareous and shale-derived soils in boreal Canada [83].

Downy ryegrass grows in montane, subalpine, and alpine elevations, depending on latitude and site (table 1).

Downy ryegrass occurs on flat to steep slopes [17,22,47]; it is most common on south-facing exposures in subboreal and boreal sites [4,13,20]. On the Mackenzie River Delta and Reindeer Grazing Preserve, Yukon, downy ryegrass occurs on steep, eroding upper and middle slopes of the Caribou Hills and the east side of the Anderson River [17].

PLANT COMMUNITIES
Downy ryegrass grows in deciduous, coniferous, and mixedwood parklands, woodlands, and open forests [7,30,31,47,48,60,72]; shrubfields [44]; tundra; boreal, subboreal, and alpine grasslands [86]; montane meadows [2,114]; and Palouse [48] and northern mixedgrass [7,30,31,47,48,60,72,74] prairies. Although downy ryegrass is often dominant in subboreal and boreal communities, the surface layer vegetation in such communities is often sparse, with downy ryegrass cover typically averaging <5% [80,81]. In quaking aspen communities of northern and central Alberta, for example, downy ryegrass was the most consistently occurring graminoid in the surface layer (75% frequency), but it averaged only 4.8% cover [102]. Further details of the plant communities in which downy ryegrass grows are described below by area. See table A3 for a representative list of plant classifications in which downy ryegrass occurs.

Alaska: In Alaska, downy ryegrass occurs in the understory of conifer and hardwood communities—particularly spruce and quaking aspen [22]—and in shrubland and herbaceous communities. It occurs in tundra of the Arctic Slope [97,114]. It may dominate dry herbaceous communities on slopes of interior Alaska, and it forms small, localized stands on floodplains and dry, south-facing slopes of the Alaska and Brooks ranges [19,110]. Downy ryegrass-Altai fescue/splendid feather moss and downy ryegrass-plains bluegrass are the prevailing communities of this type, although downy ryegrass sometimes grows in pure stands [110,114].

Western United States: Downy ryegrass grows in inland ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir [5,73], and lodgepole pine communities [41]; Palouse prairies [48] east of the Cascade Range [32]; and mixedgrass prairies of the Northern Great Plains [41,74]. It is frequent in paper birch-quaking aspen and Scouler’s willow woodlands in the Black Hills [67,108]; these are most common on south-facing slopes [67]. It also grows in ponderosa pine [54,108] and white spruce/grouse whortleberry communities in the Black Hills, averaging 13% frequency in each [65].

Canada: In subboreal and boreal communities of western Canada, downy ryegrass grows in conifer, hardwood, and mixedwood communities; and in meadows and prairies [69,83]. In eastern Canada, it grows in open jack pine, white spruce-balsam fir, and quaking aspen forests [83].

Alberta: Downy ryegrass may dominate the surface layer of old-growth Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine [20,49,59,78,105], and Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir forests; and of montane white spruce parklands [105]. In Jasper National Park, cover of downy ryegrass ranged from 5% to 20% in 100- to 300-year-old Douglas-fir/downy ryegrass vegetation types [49]. Cover of downy ryegrass in 100- to 225-year-old Engelmann spruce types ranged from 1% to 15%; even at that low cover, it was the dominant grass. In lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry/showy western aster-downy ryegrass/splendid feather moss vegetation types, showy western aster and downy ryegrass provided 10% to 20% cover each [49].

Downy ryegrass is present to dominant in willow, resin birch, and kinnikinnick shrublands of Alberta [13,49]. For example, it forms 2% to 40% cover in greyleaf willow and resin birch-greyleaf willow/Bellardi bog sedge communities [13].

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT REGENERATION PROCESSES SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
	Figure 2—Downy ryegrass in Fort Smith, Northwest Territories. Creative Commons image by M. Torre Jorgenson.

Downy ryegrass is a perennial grass. It is typically rhizomatous [2,41,43,50,60] and sod forming [83], but it sometimes forms clumps or tussocks [8,28]. Plants range from 10 to 160 cm tall [8,50,83]; plants 30 to 70 cm tall are reported in interior Alaska [110]. The leaves are rigid, coarse, and flat to spirally curled [83]. The inflorescence is a compact spike [35] from 6 to 14 cm long [60]. Downy ryegrass flowers characteristically have tall (10-15 mm), dense spikelets [2,47,83], pubescent lemmas, short (1-6 mm) awns [7,41,43,47,50,60], and densely hairy glumes [7,83] (fig. 2). Seeds range from 9.9 to 14.3 mm long [15]. The subspecies are distinguished from each other by the lengths of their spikes and lemma hairs [7]. Rhizomes are 2 to 3 mm in diameter [41].

Raunkiaer Life Form
Geophyte [79]

SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
Hunt and Wright (2007) state that downy ryegrass “germinates best in cool soils” [51], suggesting fall or early spring germination. Downy ryegrass flowers in summer [53] (table 2).

REGENERATION PROCESSES
Downy ryegrass primarily reproduces vegetatively from rhizomes and from seed.

Vegetative Reproduction and Regeneration
Downy ryegrass spreads by sprouting from rhizomes [2,83,96,111] and by tillering [83]. In restoration projects in and near Denali National Park, downy ryegrass rhizomes were “vigorous and spreading” [26]. Downy ryegrass likely regenerates from rhizomes after top-kill, although information on this was lacking.

Pollination and Breeding System
Leymus species are wind pollinated [36,76,96]. It is self-incompatible, requiring cross-pollination [7,28,76].

Seed Production
No information was available on this topic.

Seed Dispersal
No information was available on this topic. Seeds are likely dispersed by wind and animals.

Seed Banking
Downy ryegrass likely has at least a short-term soil-stored seed bank. In quaking aspen stands in northern Alberta, downy ryegrass seedlings emerged from soil collected from the organic horizon and from mineral layers at 2.5- to 10-cm depths. Aboveground cover of downy ryegrass ranged from trace amounts to 5.4% [64]. The longevity of soil-stored seed is unknown [15].

Germination and Seedling Establishment
Downy ryegrass seed apparently has no pregermination requirements [51], although germination rates may be low. Seed collected from Denali National Park had “poor” germination rates [25]. Stratified seed from interior British Columbia averaged 32% germination (range 12%-50%) [15].

Seeds may germinate and plants establish in mineral soil or litter [26,111]. In outwash of the Muldrow Glacier in central Alaska, downy ryegrass established in bare gravel and decaying clumps of Drummond's mountain-avens and smallflowered milkvetch [111].

Plant Growth and Mortality
No information was available on this topic.

Downy ryegrass tolerates soil disturbance [12,42,44,60,77,85,103] and may grow on sites that were recently salvage logged [57,63] (see Fire Adaptations and Plant Response to Fire) or bulldozed [103]. In northeastern British Columbia, downy ryegrass was associated with quaking aspen sites with heavily compacted soils lacking an organic layer [42]. Ten years after treatments in a white spruce plantation, downy ryegrass and bluejoint dominated the surface layers of sites that were clearcut, then subject to brush removal and glyphosate spraying, while bluejoint and fireweed dominated sites that were only clearcut [12].

Downy ryegrass occurs in primary and early secondary succession in subboreal and boreal sites, including scoured avalanche chutes [19,44,85] and floodplains [111], and bare glacial till [111]. Downy ryegrass-obtuse sedge meadows form on avalanche chutes in Alaska [19]. On outwashes of the Muldrow Glacier in central Alaska, downy ryegrass averaged 67% frequency in 20- to 30-year-old downy ryegrass-Altai fescue meadows [111]. On floodplains in the Alaska Range, downy ryegrass grasslands may develop after pioneering perennial-herb communities; this development apparently occurs within a few decades if the sites are not further disturbed [111]. Downy ryegrass grasslands on steep slopes are often stable, and they may represent microclimatic, topographic, or edaphic climaxes [110].

In conifer and hardwood communities, downy ryegrass may persist—or even remain as a sparse but dominant component of the surface layer—as the canopy closes [5,62,69,101]. Downy ryegrass is noted as a component of mature and old-growth conifer communities of Alberta, where it occurs in Douglas-fir/common juniper (100 to >300 years old), lodgepole pine/thickspike wheatgrass (125 to >290 years old), and Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir/russet buffaloberry (125 to >260 years old) forests, and montane white spruce parklands (≈128 to 300 years old) [105].

Frequent fire and/or logging help maintain the open conditions that favor downy ryegrass. In the Black Hills, downy ryegrass occurs in paper birch-quaking aspen woodlands that succeed to lodgepole pine. Fire historically set back succession in these woodlands [67]. For example, fire maintains quaking aspen/squashberry/dwarf red blackberry communities of west-central Alberta, in which downy ryegrass is an important component. These communities succeed to white spruce in 100 to 150 years in the absence of fire [20]. In southern Alberta, downy ryegrass is an important component of quaking aspen stands that succeed to subalpine fir-Engelmann spruce in the absence of fire, and it may remain dominant as succession advances. Even when dominant in the surface layer of these woodlands and forests, downy ryegrass cover is usually low (<5%) [4].

Clearcutting can favor downy ryegrass; no studies of downy ryegrass abundance after thinning were found in the literature. In western Alberta, downy ryegrass cover was positively correlated with clearcuts and young lodgepole pine stands (r = 0.80, n = 25). Its cover averaged 7.7% in 6- to 7-year-old stands and 1.5% in 130-year-old stands. After fireweed, downy ryegrass was the second most common herb in early-seral communities [21]. Also in western Alberta, downy ryegrass cover was higher in 35-year-old clearcuts (0.08%) than 1-year-old clearcuts (0.01%) [112].

FIRE ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

FIRE ADAPTATIONS AND PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE
Downy ryegrass likely responds to fire by sprouting from rhizomes and establishing from seed, although its methods of postfire regeneration and response to fires of various severities were not noted in the literature. Sprouting is probably its most important method of postfire regeneration. Downy ryegrass is often present in early postfire communities [39,40,54,61,62,91], including jack pine [68,89], white spruce [34,91], subalpine fir-Engelmann spruce [34], lodgepole pine [1,73], quaking aspen [61], balsam poplar [91], and mixedwood [57] woodlands and forests; shrublands [73,87]; and meadows and prairies [44,45,87,92]. Its cover may increase after fire [87,89].

In white spruce and subalpine fir-Engelmann spruce forests of Banff and Jasper national parks, downy ryegrass is common in early postfire succession [34,73,87]. In Jasper National Park, its postfire cover in mesic white spruce communities was highest in postfire years 0 to 10, stable in postfire years 10 to 60, and lowest in 100- to 300-year-old forests [73]. Also in Banff National Park, downy ryegrass was the dominant grass—and the second most dominant herb after fireweed—on sites that had been recently burned under prescription. Its cover was higher in recently burned communities than in mature communities, and its cover was highest after prescribed fire in mature subalpine fir-Engelmann spruce communities (table 3). The authors did not age the mature forest communities, but they speculated that they were at least 50 years old [87].

In jack pine forests, downy ryegrass abundance may increase after fire and be more important in forests that were not salvaged logged than in forests that were salvaged logged. Schwartz and Wein (1992) report that downy ryegrass “occurs widely in the understory of jack pine and increases cover dramatically after fire” [89]. In northeastern Alberta, downy ryegrass had a high importance value and was an indicator species of unsalvaged jack pine forests that had burned 2 years prior, in the 2002 House River wildfire. It had lower importance values in burned, salvaged-logged jack pine-black spruce and mixed conifer-quaking aspen forests [63].

Downy ryegrass can occur after fire in white spruce-quaking aspen forests. In a white spruce-quaking aspen forest north-central Alberta, it occurred on plots both before and after the 2001 Chisholm wildfire, although its abundance was not provided [62]. In northern Alberta, downy ryegrass was abundant in and an indicator species of boreal white spruce-quaking aspen sites that had been salvage logged in the first few years after wildfire [57] (table 4).

FUEL CHARACTERISTICS
Information on downy ryegrass fuels was sparse in the literature. Although it is often dominant in boreal and subboreal woodlands and forests, downy ryegrass cover is typically low in these communities (see Plant Communities), so downy ryegrass may not provide substantial surface fuels. In pink mountainheath-white arctic mountain heather alpine shrublands of southwestern British Columbia, dry weight biomass of downy ryegrass averaged 243 g/m² from 1,554 to 1,570 m elevation and 84 g/m² from 1,623 to 1,676 m elevation [13]. The root crowns of downy ryegrass are enveloped by old leaf sheaths [41], which may increase its flammability.

FIRE REGIMES
Many of the plant communities in which downy ryegrass occurs were historically maintained by frequent or moderate-interval fire, and downy ryegrass tends to occur on early-successional and open sites (see Successional Status). In Jasper National Park, large, old Douglas-firs with thick bark and multiple fire scars indicate that fires were a common occurrence in Douglas-fir/downy ryegrass woodlands and forests [49]. The lodgepole pine/russet buffaloberry/western showy aster-downy ryegrass/splendid feather moss types of Jasper National Park are mostly 60 to 100 years old and of fire origin [49].

See these FEIS publications for information on historical fire regimes in plant communities in which downy ryegrass is dominant or common:

• Alaskan black spruce
• Alaskan white spruce
• Alaskan black cottonwood
• Alaskan quaking aspen and balsam poplar
• Alaskan alder and willow shrublands
• Alaskan tundra
• Alaskan dry grassland
• Alaskan wet and mesic herbaceous systems
• Aspen-birch
• Jack pine
• Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir
• Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine
• Northwestern montane and foothill grasslands
• Rocky Mountain subalpine mixed conifer
• Rocky Mountain subalpine shrublands
• Northern Rocky Mountain montane shrublands
• Northern Rocky Mountain high-elevation grasslands
• Western alpine
• Black Hills ponderosa pine
• Plains grassland and prairie

OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

• FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS
• OTHER STATUS
• IMPORTANCE TO WILDLIFE AND LIVESTOCK
• VALUE FOR RESTORATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER USES
• MANAGEMENT UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE

Several studies document the importance of downy ryegrass in the diet of wildlife. In northern British Columbia, elk preferentially chose recently burned downy ryegrass meadows as foraging habitat [39]. In another study in the area, downy ryegrass was the only grass preferentially selected by woodland caribou [23]. In northern Alberta, downy ryegrass may be a major forage plant for woodland bison [81]. In Banff National Park, downy ryegrass-Kentucky bluegrass and downy ryegrass alluvial meadows interspersed within white spruce forests provide winter and migration forage for elk [71]. In western Alberta, downy ryegrass was an important year-round component in the diet of feral horses, and the primary component in their diet from January through August [88].

Palatability and Nutritional Value
Downy ryegrass is not highly palatable [51,96]; its palatability is rated poor to fair for wildlife and livestock [29]. However, it is an important forage grass [51,96] due to its relative frequency (see Plant Communities) and cold tolerance [51].

Downy ryegrass contains moderate levels of protein. Bezeau (1962) provides information on the nutritional value of downy ryegrass [11].

Cover Value
Downy ryegrass provides cover for birds and small mammals [51].

When used in restoration projects, downy ryegrass can be established from seed [51] or container-grown plants [26], and it spreads well vegetatively [26,51]. Near Palmer, Alaska, survival of downy ryegrass seedlings averaged 96% after their first winter [55]. Seed may be commercially available [77,96]. A cultivar, ‘Cantwell Germplasm downy wildrye’, reportedly establishes well from seed and spreads rapidly via rhizomes [51]. Burton and Burton (2003) provide information for propagating downy ryegrass from seed [15].

OTHER USES
Common wheat × downy ryegrass crosses have been developed to improve wheat production in the northern prairie provinces [76].

APPENDIX

REFERENCES:

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2. Anderson, J.P. 2019. Anderson's flora of Alaska and adjacent parts of Canada: An illustrated descriptive text of all vascular plants known to occur within the region covered. Reprint Edition. Sullivan, IN: Orchard Innovations. 553 p. [94731]

3. Atkins, Riley J.; Barkworth, Mary E.; Dewey, Douglas R. 1984. A taxonomic study of Leymus ambiguus and L. salinus (Poaceae: Triticeae). Systematic Botany. 9(3): 279-294. [2851]

4. Baig, Mirza Naeem. 1972. Ecology of timberline vegetation in the Rocky Mountains of Alberta. Calgary, AB: The University of Calgary, Department of Biology. 444 p. Dissertation. [41433]

5. Bailey, Arthur W. 1975. Rangeland resources on Alberta's east slope. Agriculture Bulletin. 26: 3-6. [53376]

6. Barkworth, Mary E. 2006. A new hybrid genus and 12 new combinations in North American grasses. Sida. 22(11): 495-501. [95570]

7. Barkworth, Mary E.; Anderton, Laurel K.; Capels, Kathleen M.; Long, Sally; Piep, Michael B., eds. 2007. Manual of grasses for North America. Logan, UT: Utah State University, Intermountain Herbarium and Utah State University Press. 626 p. [95416]

8. Barkworth, Mary E.; Atkins, Riley J. 1984. Leymus Hochst. (Gramineae: Triticeae) in North America: Taxonomy and distribution. American Journal of Botany. 71(5): 609-625. [2889]

9. Barkworth, Mary E.; Capels, Kathleen M.; Long, Sandy; Anderton, Laurel K.; Piep, Michael B., eds. 2007. Flora of North America north of Mexico. Volume 24: Magnoliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Poaceae, part 1. New York: Oxford University Press. 911 p. [68092]

10. Beus, Tana. 2010. Habitat modeling using path analysis: Delineating mountain goat habitat in the Washington Cascades. Bellingham, WA: Western Washington University. 105 p. Thesis. [95654]

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12. Boateng, Jacob O.; Haeussler, Sybille; Bedford, Lorne. 2000. Boreal plant community diversity 10 years after glyphosate treatment. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 15(1): 15-26. [37144]

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15. Burton, Carla M.; Burton, Philip J. 2003. A manual for growing and using seed from herbaceous plants native to the northern interior of British Columbia. Smithers, BC: Symbios Research & Restoration. 172 p. [95894]

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18. Cooper, David J. 1989. Geographical and ecological relationships of the arctic-alpine vascular flora and vegetation, Arrigetch Peaks region, central Brooks Range, Alaska. Journal of Biogeography. 16(3): 279-295. [62716]

19. Cooper, David Jonathan. 1983. Arctic-alpine tundra ecosystems of the Arrigetch Creek Valley, Central Brooks Range, Alaska. Bolder, CO: University of Colorado. 827 p. [+ tables and figures]. Dissertation. [88142]

20. Corns, I. G. W.; Annas, R. M. 1986. Field guide to forest ecosystems of west-central Alberta. Edmonton, AB: Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forestry Service, Northern Forestry Centre. 251 p. [8998]

21. Corns, Ian G.; La Roi, George H. 1976. A comparison of mature with recently clear-cut and scarified lodgepole pine forests in the Lower Foothills of Alberta. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 6(1): 20-32. [34970]

22. Daubenmire, Rexford. 1953. Notes on the vegetation of forested regions of the far northern Rockies and Alaska. Northwest Science. 27(4): 125-138. [10816]

23. Denryter, Kristin A.; Cook, Rachel C.; Cook, John G.; Parker, Katherine L. 2017. Straight from the caribou’s (Rangifer tarandus) mouth: Detailed observations of tame caribou reveal new insights into summer-autumn diets. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 95(2): 81-94. [95656]

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25. Densmore, Roseann V.; Dalle-Molle, Lois; Holmes, Katherine E. 1990. Restoration of alpine and subalpine plant communities in Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska, U.S.A. In: Hughes, H. Glenn; Bonnicksen, Thomas M., eds. Restoration `89: The new management challenge: Proceedings, 1st annual meeting of the Society for Ecological Restoration; 1989 January 16-20; Oakland, CA. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Arboretum, Society for Ecological Restoration: 509-519. [14720]

26. Densmore, Roseann V.; Vander Meer, Mark E.; Dunkle, Nancy G. 2000. Native plant revegetation manual for Denali National Park and Preserve. Information and Technology Rep. USGS/BRD/ITR-2000-0006. Springfield, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. 42 p. [95659]

27. Dewey, Douglas R. 1976. The genome constitution and phylogeny of Elymus ambiguus. American Journal of Botany. 63(5): 626-634. [95660]

28. Dewey, Douglas R. 1983. Historical and current taxonomic perspectives of Agropyron, Elymus, and related genera. Crop Science. 23(4): 637-642. [793]

29. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The Plant Information Network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]

30. Dorn, Robert D. 1977. Flora of the Black Hills. Cheyenne, WY: Robert D. Dorn and Jane L. Dorn. 377 p. [820]

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