Index of Species Information
SPECIES: Poa cusickii
Introductory
SPECIES: Poa cusickii
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Howard, Janet L. 1997. Poa cusickii. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/graminoid/poacus/all.html [].
ABBREVIATION :
POACUS
SYNONYMS :
Poa epilis Scribn. [12]
= P. cusickii ssp. epilis (Scribn.) R. J. Soreng [13,35]
P. c. ssp. epilis var. purpurascens (Vasey) C. Hitchc. [35]
= P. c. ssp. purpurascens (Vasey) R. J. Soreng [34]
SCS PLANT CODE :
POCU3
COMMON NAMES :
Cusick's bluegrass
TAXONOMY :
The scientific name of Cusick's bluegrass is Poa cusickii Vasey
(Poaceae) [9,13,14,15,22]. Accepted subspecies are:
Poa cusickii ssp. cusickii [13,22,35]
P. c. ssp. epilis (Scribn.) Weber [13,22,47]
P. c. ssp. pallida R. J. Soreng [13,35,48]
P. c. ssp. purpurascens (Vasey) R. J. Soreng [13,35]
Kartesz [16] and Welsh and others [49] consider Cusick's bluegrass
synonymous with mutton grass (P. fendleriana). Based upon chloroplast
DNA anaylsis and differences in morphologies and mating systems,
however, Soreng [34,35] has classified Cusick's bluegrass and mutton
grass as distinct species. A separate report on mutton grass is
available in FEIS.
Poa X nematophylla Rydb. is a stable, apomictic taxon probably resulting
from hybridization of P. c. ssp. pallida and mutton grass [35].
LIFE FORM :
Graminoid
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Poa cusickii
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Cusick's bluegrass occurs from Alberta and Saskatchewan southward to
North Dakota, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, and California [13,15,35].
Distributions of subspecies are [13,35]:
Poa cusckii ssp. cusickii - central Washington east to central Idaho and south
to northern Nevada and east-central California
P. c. ssp. epilis - British Columbia and extreme western Saskatchewan
south to western Montana, eastern Idaho and the
Coast Ranges of Washington and Oregon; isolated populations
in the Cascade Range of Oregon and the Sierra Nevada
of California, and in northern Nevada, north-central
Wyoming, north-central Utah, and central Colorado
P. c. ssp. pallida - British Columbia east to Saskatchewan and south to
western North Dakota, northern Colorado, Utah, and
Nevada, and extreme eastern California
P. c. ssp. purpurascens - southern British Columiba through the Coast
Ranges to northern California; rare in the
Sierra Nevada
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES23 Fir - spruce
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES30 Desert shrub
FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon - juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
STATES :
CA CO ID MT NV ND OR UT WA WY
AB BC SK
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K011 Western ponderosa pine forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K015 Western spruce - fir forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K018 Pine - Douglas-fir forest
K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
K021 Southwestern spruce - fir forest
K023 Juniper - pinyon woodland
K024 Juniper steppe woodland
K037 Mountain-mahogany - oak scrub
K038 Great Basin sagebrush
K040 Saltbush - greasewood
K050 Fescue-wheatgrass
K051 Wheatgrass - bluegrass
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K056 Wheatgrass - needlegrass shrubsteppe
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama - needlegrass - wheatgrass
K065 Grama - buffalograss
K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass
K098 Northern floodplain forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
206 Engelmann spruce - subalpine fir
210 Interior Douglas-fir
217 Aspen
220 Rocky Mountain juniper
237 Interior ponderosa pine
238 Western juniper
239 Pinyon - juniper
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
101 Bluebunch wheatgrass
102 Idaho fescue
103 Green fescue
104 Antelope bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
105 Antelope bitterbrush-Idaho fescue
106 Bluegrass scabland
107 Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass
109 Ponderosa pine shrubland
110 Ponderosa pine-grassland
210 Bitterbrush
216 Montane meadows
302 Bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass
303 Bluebunch wheatgrass-western wheatgrass
304 Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass
306 Idaho fescue-slender wheatgrass
307 Idaho fescue-threadleaf sedge
308 Idaho fescue-tufted hairgrass
309 Idaho fescue-western wheatgrass
310 Needle-and-thread-blue grama
311 Rough fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass
312 Rough fescue-Idaho fescue
313 Tufted hairgrass-sedge
314 Big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
315 Big sagebrush-Idaho fescue
316 Big sagebrush-rough fescue
317 Bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
318 Bitterbrush-Idaho fescue
319 Bitterbrush-rough fescue
320 Black sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass
321 Black sagebrush-Idaho fescue
322 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany-bluebunch wheatgrass
324 Threetip sagebrush-Idaho fescue
401 Basin big sagebrush
402 Mountain big sagebrush
403 Wyoming big sagebrush
404 Threetip sagebrush
405 Black sagebrush
411 Aspen woodland
412 Juniper-pinyon woodland
414 Salt desert shrub
415 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany
416 True mountain-mahogany
501 Saltbush-greasewood
504 Juniper-pinyon pine woodland
607 Wheatgrass-needlegrass
612 Sagebrush-grass
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Cusick's bluegrass is a minor component of most plant communities in
which it occurs [4]. It dominates some eastern Washington, Oregon, and
California plant communities, however [18,43]. Cusick's bluegrass is
dominant on some xeric meadows in eastern Oregon [43]. A big
sagebrush-silver sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata-A. cana)/Cusick's
bluegrass plant association occurs in the Ochoco Mountains and Basin of
Oregon and the Warner Mountains of California [18,19]. A list of
publications describing plant communities dominated by Cusick's
bluegrass follows.
Vegetation types of Utah [1]
Riparian zone associations: Deschutes, Ochoco, Fremont, and Winema
National Forests [18]
Use of geomorphology in the classification of riparian plant
associations in mountainous landscapes of central Oregon, U.S.A. [19]
Plant associations of the central Oregon Pumice Zone [44]
Cusick's bluegrass meadows in Oregon associate with lodgepole pine
(Pinus contorta) forests upslope and more mesic meadows downslope.
Downslope mesic meadows are usually dominated by Kentucky bluegrass (Poa
pratensis) and/or tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia cespitosa). Flora on
Cusick's bluegrass meadows are more diverse than on downslope meadows.
Plants commonly found in Cusick's bluegrass meadows include California
oatgrass (Danthonia californica), slender wheatgrass (Elymus
trachycaulus), prairie junegrass (Koeleria macrantha), slenderbeak sedge
(Carex athrostachya), threadleaf sedge (C. tilifolia), analogue sedge
(C. simulata), western yarrow (Achillea millifolium), western aster
(Aster occidentalis), and pussytoes (Antennaria spp.) [43,44].
Associates in the bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria
spicata)-Cusick's bluegrass mountain grasslands of Utah include
Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda), Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis
hymenoides), needle-and-thread grass (Stipa comata), sand dropseed
(Sporobolus cryptandrus), globemallow (Sphaeralcea spp.), phlox (Phlox
spp.), and boreal sweetvetch (Hedysarum boreale ssp. boreale) [1].
Cusick's bluegrass occurs in shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia)-
bottlebrush squirreltail (Elymus elymoides) communities of eastern
Oregon. Sandberg bluegrass and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) are also
common in the community [17].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Poa cusickii
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Cusick's bluegrass makes up only a small proportion of the biomass of
the sagebrush communities in which it lives, but it is often taken
preferentially by cattle, especially early in the season [4,42]. Deer,
elk, and mountain goat also use Cusick's bluegrass early in the season
[20,32].
PALATABILITY :
In eastern Washington, livestock prefer the less plentiful Cusick's
bluegrass over bluebunch wheatgrass or Sandberg bluegrass [4,29,41,42].
In eastern Oregon, Cusick's bluegrass is rated moderately palatable to
livestock, deer, and elk in early summer, and less palatable as plants
mature in July [20].
The degree of use shown by livestock and wildlife species for Cusick's
bluegrass in several other western states has been rated as follows [6]:
CO MT UT WY
Cattle good good good good
Sheep good good good fair
Horses good good good good
Pronghorn ---- ---- fair fair
Elk ---- ---- good good
Mule deer ---- ---- good fair
White-tailed deer ---- ---- ---- fair
Small mammals ---- ---- good good
Small nongame birds ---- ---- fair good
Upland game birds ---- ---- fair fair
Waterfowl ---- ---- fair poor
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Cusick's bluegrass has a fair energy rating and a relatively poor
protein content [6].
COVER VALUE :
The value of of Cusick's bluegrass as cover for small animals has been
rated as follows [6]:
UT WY
Small mammals fair good
Small nongame birds fair good
Upland game birds poor fair
Waterfowl ---- poor
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
NO-ENTRY
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
NO-ENTRY
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Cusick's bluegrass decreases with continuous grazing or heavy grazing
early in the growing season. As a palatable, early-season grass that
grows on dry sites, it is especially vulnerable to overgrazing [43,44].
Cusick's bluegrass meadows in poor to very poor condition are common in
eastern Oregon. When livestock grazing is managed according to the
condition of graminoids on more mesic downslopes, Cusick's bluegrass
invariably declines [43].
Annual production in Cusick's bluegrass meadows of eastern Oregon in
good condition is approximately 2,800 lbs/acre (dry weight). In poor
condition, production is about 600 lbs/acre (dry weight). Volland [43]
provides rangeland and soil rating guidelines for Cusick's bluegrass
meadows and other eastern Oregon grassland communities.
Cusick's bluegrass declined under moderate-intensity grazing in eastern
Washington. Cusick's bluegrass had a 39 percent reduction in leaf
length and a 20 percent reduction in flowering culm length. The
proportion of grass plants with flowering culms was 62 percent lower on
grazed plots than on ungrazed plots. The number of flowering culms per
plant may also be lower. Cusick's bluegrass was more adversely affected
by grazing than bluebunch wheatgrass or Thurber needlegrass (Stipa
thurberiana) [30].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Poa cusickii
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Cusick's bluegrass is a cool-season, native perennial bunchgrass. It
grows in dense, often large tufts. Culms are 8 to 24 inches (20-60 cm)
long [14]. Cusick's bluegrass is dioecious with apomictic subspecies
and races in which only pistillate plants are present [35].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Hemicryptophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Cusick's bluegrass reproduces from seed and by tillering [20].
Predominantly to entirely female populations are common. All Poa
cusickii ssp. purpurascens plants are pistillate [35]. Both sexual and
apomictic races produce viable seed [34,35]. Cusick's bluegrass stores
seed in the soil. More Cusick's bluegrass germinated from seed in soil
samples collected on plains rough fescue (Festuca altaica ssp. hallii)
prairie in Saskatchewan than from seed of any other grass species,
including plains rough fescue [10]. Germination rate of seed collected
from mixed-grass prairie in Saskatchewan was 42 percent [56].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Cusick's bluegrass occurs mostly on dry sites. It grows on rocky
slopes, terraces, dry margins of meadows, and inactive floodplains
[4,5,18,20]. It has shown minor coverage on moist sites [24].
In eastern Washington, Cusick's bluegrass tends to be restricted to
north-facing slopes in the basin big sagebrush (Artemisia
tridentata)/bluebunch wheatgrass habitat types. In many stands,
Cusick's bluegrass occurs primarily beneath canopies of shrubs,
particularly big sagebrush and spiny hopsage (Grayia spinosa) [4,5].
Cusick's bluegrass occurs on all aspects in eastern Oregon [44].
Cusick's bluegrass occurs mostly on loamy-textured soils [17,29,44]. In
Wyoming, it grows on Cryoboroll soils [25]. In eastern Oregon, Cusick's
bluegrass is an indicator species for meadows with pumice soils and dry
sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) floodplain sites [20].
Cusick's bluegrass occurs at mid- to high elevations [18] The
elevational range of Cusick's bluegrass in several western states is
reported below [6,18].
feet meters
------------ -----------
CA 4,440- 7,000 1,330-2,100 (in Warner Mts.)
CO 6,200-12,800 1,890-3,902
MT 6,600-10,000 2,012-3,049
OR 4,440- 5,500 1,330-1,650
UT 8,700-11,800 2,012-3,597
WY 7,000-12,500 2,134-3,811
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Little is known of Cusick's bluegrass' place in succession. In
floodplain succession, Cusick's bluegrass does not occur on new
floodplains. Instead, it occurs on inactive floodplains and dry
terraces [18]. Cusick's bluegrass is a minor component of big
sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass and other climax habitat types [3].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Phenological decelopment of Cuisck's blugrass in most states has not
been described. In Montana, Cusick's bluegrass flowers from June to
August [6].
Wet weather can extend reproduction and growth period of Cusick's
bluegrass. In Washington, Cusick's bluegrass flowered and continued
growing for a longer period of time after the unusally wet fall and
winter of 1973-1974 than after the dry winter of 1973-1974.
Precipitation during the fall and winter of 1972-1973 was 5.4 inches
(135 mm); preciptation the fall and winter of 1973-1974 was 15 inches
(375 cm). Mutton grass phenology was as follows [31]:
1972-1973 1973-1974
growth began early March -----
floral buds formed mid-March mid-March
flowers opened early April early April
seed ripened early May mid-May
growth stopped early June early July
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Poa cusickii
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Cusick's bluegrass regenerates after fire from seed and by tillering
[20].
Few quantitative data are available on Cusick's bluegrass response to
fire. A few studies have shown short-term decline after fire [26,40].
In general, bluegrasses (Poa spp.) are relatively resistant to fire
damage [20,52,53]. Cusick's bluegrass matures rapidly in the spring and
is in a dormant state when summer and fall fires occur [51,52].
FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Tussock graminoid
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Poa cusickii
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Data on the immediate effects of fire on Cusick's bluegrass are not
available. The effects of fire on Cusick's bluegrass are probably
comparable to those observed on mutton grass, a closely related and
morphologically similar species [35]. Mutton grass is unharmed to
slightly harmed by light-severity fall fire [11,45,46,50]. Mutton grass
appears to be harmed by and slow to recover from severe fire [54,55].
Pedestalling increases the susceptibilty of bunchgrasses to fire. When
grasses are elevated, new tillers are no longer insulated from fire by
the soil [37,52]. Cusick's bluegrass plants that have become
pedestalled by local erosion may be severely damaged or killed by fire,
although fuels at such sites may be too patchy to support fire spread.
Overgrazed Cusick's bluegrass rangelands are characterized by 25 to 45
percent bare ground and pedestalled Cusick's bluegrass plants [43].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Most information on Cusick's bluegrass response to fire is anecdotal
[20,51,52,53]. Cusick's bluegrass recovery from fire is reported as
"moderately rapid" [20] to "very rapid" [52,53]. Least damage occurs
with late summer or fall fire when Cusick's bluegrass is dormant. Most
damage is thought to occur from spring fire that occurs after plants
have started growth [53].
Wildfire in mid-August, 1973, reduced vegetative growth and reproduction
of Cusick's bluegrass for at least 3 years. The wildfire burned through
a portion of a bluebunch wheatgrass-Thurber needlegrass (Stipa
thurberiana) community on the Arid Lands Ecology Reserve in
south-central Washington. An unburned portion of the community (fire
excluded for at least 30 years) was used as a control. Basal area was
reduced by 42 percent the first year after fire and remained reduced for
all 3 postfire years on the burned site [40,42]. Leaf length,
flowerhead length, and number of flowering culms were reduced the first
year after fire. In postfire year 2, the number of flowering culms per clump
was much greater than that on an unburned stand. By postyear 3, leaf
length and the number of flowering culms equalled plants on the unburned
stand. These results are similar to those from an earlier study in
southern Idaho [26].
A comparison of Cusick's bluegrass on burned and unburned control plots
for postfire years 1 to 3 follows. Data are means (standard errors)
[40,41,42].
1974
________________________________________________________
| Burn Control |
| ___________ ___________ |
|live herbage (g/sq m) 2.4 (1.1) 4.2 (3.8) |
|dead herbage (g/sq m) 0 3.8 (3.4) |
|leaf length (cm) **14.1 (0.2) 21.9 (0.2) |
|basal area (sq cm) **219.9 (23.3) 381.7 (35.5)|
|culm length (cm) 46.6 (0.8) 46.9 (0.6) |
|flowerhead length (cm) **5.7 (0.1) 6.4 (0.1) |
|Number of flowering **4.3 (0.9) 9.5 (1.6) |
| culms/clump |
|clumps with flowering **67 72 |
| culms (%) |
|______________________________________________________|
1975
________________________________________________________
| Burn Control |
| ___________ ___________ |
|live herbage (g/sq m) 1.5 (1.4) 2.4 (2.0) |
|dead herbage (g/sq m) 0 1.0 (0.7) |
|leaf length (cm) **17.5 (0.1) 20.2 (0.2) |
|basal area (sq cm) **183 (20) 324 (29) |
|culm length (cm) **43.4 (0.5) 36.9 (1.4) |
|flowerhead length (cm) **5.8 (0.1) 6.8 (0.2) |
|number of flowering *17.5 (4.3) 4.3 (1.0) |
| culms/clump |
|clumps with flowering **69 31 |
| culms (%) |
|______________________________________________________|
1976
________________________________________________________
| Burn Control |
| ___________ ___________ |
|live herbage (g/sq m) *0.3 (0.2) 4.1 (2.0) |
|dead herbage (g/sq m) *0.4 (0.2) 5.5 (2.3) |
|leaf length (cm) **18.5 (0.2) 19.2 (0.2) |
|basal area (sq cm) **169 (16) 285 (22) |
|culm length (cm) 41.9 (0.5) 42.5 (0.5) |
|flowerhead length (cm) **5.6 (0.1) 6.5 (0.1) |
|number of flowering 8.5 (1.6) 7.8 (1.5) |
| culms/clump |
|clumps with flowering 60 65 |
| culms (%) |
|______________________________________________________|
*Significantly different from unburned plot (p < 0.05)
**Significantly different from unburned plot (p < 0.01)
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Repeated prescribed fire is recommended for reducing sagebrush (Artemsia
spp.) on sagebrush/Cusick's bluegrass rangelands in eastern Oregon.
Kovalchik [18] reported that on big sagebrush-silver sagbrush/Cusick's
bluegrass communities that are in fair or better condition, repeated
prescribed fire greatly decreases big sagebrush cover and increases
cover of Cusick's bluegrass. Silver sagebrush cover is not reduced as
much as big sagebrush cover because silver sagebrush sprouts, but silver
sagebrush decreases at least somewhat as Cusick's bluegrass increases in
vigor [18].
Considering Cusick's bluegrass meadows of eastern Oregon, Volland [43]
wrote that, "Nothing is known about the effect of prescribed burning on
this plant community." Because it is nonrhizomatous, Cusick's
bluegrass may decline at the expense of Kentucky bluegrass, which is
rhizomatous and common in Cusisk's bluegrass communities. Volland
cautioned that if Cusick's bluegrass meadows are burned, they should be
protected from grazing for at least one growing season after fire.
References for species: Poa cusickii
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2. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
3. Clifton, Nancy A. 1981. Response to prescribed fire in a Wyoming big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass habitat type. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 39 p. Thesis. [650]
4. Daubenmire, R. 1970. Steppe vegetation of Washington. Technical Bulletin 62. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, College of Agriculture, Washington Agricultural Experiment Station. 131 p. [733]
5. Daubenmire, R. 1975. An analysis of structural and functional characters along a steppe-forest catena. Northwest Science. 49: 122-140. [742]
6. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]
7. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
8. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
9. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1392 p. [1603]
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11. Haisley, James R. 1984. The effects of presecribed burning on four aspen-bunchgrass communities in northern Arizona. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University. 47 p. Thesis. [27667]
12. Hallsten, Gregory P.; Skinner, Quentin D.; Beetle, Alan A. 1987. Grasses of Wyoming. 3rd ed. Research Journal 202. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Agricultural Experiment Station. 432 p. [2906]
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14. Hitchcock, A. S. 1951. Manual of the grasses of the United States. Misc. Publ. No. 200. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Administration. 1051 p. [2nd edition revised by Agnes Chase in two volumes. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.]. [1165]
15. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur; Ownbey, Marion. 1969. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. Part 1: Vascular cryptograms, gymnosperms, and monocotyledons. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 914 p. [1169]
16. Kartesz, John T. 1994. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. Volume II--thesaurus. 2nd ed. Portland, OR: Timber Press. 816 p. [23878]
17. Kindschy, Robert R. 1988. Protective exclosure evaluation: Oregon salt desert shrub forage production potential. Rangelands. 10(3): 102-103. [4273]
18. Kovalchik, Bernard L. 1987. Riparian zone associations: Deschutes, Ochoco, Fremont, and Winema National Forests. R6 ECOL TP-279-87. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 171 p. [9632]
19. Kovalchik, Bernard L.; Chitwood, Lawrence A. 1990. Use of geomorphology in the classification of riparian plant associations in mountainous landscapes of central Oregon, U.S.A. Forest Ecology and Management. 33/34: 405-418. [6830]
20. Kovalchik, Bernard L.; Hopkins, William E.; Brunsfeld, Steven J. 1988. Major indicator shrubs and herbs in riparian zones on National Forests of central Oregon. R6-ECOL-TP-005-88. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 159 p. [8995]
21. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
22. Lackschewitz, Klaus. 1991. Vascular plants of west-central Montana--identification guidebook. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-227. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 648 p. [13798]
23. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
24. Padgett, Wayne George. 1981. Ecology of riparian plant communities in southern Malheur National Forest. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 143 p. Thesis. [14933]
25. Passey, H. B.; Hugie, Vern K.; Williams, E. W.; Ball, D. E. 1982. Relationships between soil, plant community, and climate on rangelands of the Intermountain West. Tech. Bull. 1669. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 123 p. [1834]
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