|
|
FEIS Home Page |
SPECIES: Symphoricarpos longiflorus
 |
|
|
© 1997 Larry Blakely |
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION:
McWilliams, Jack D. 2005. Symphoricarpos longiflorus.
In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/shrub/symlon/all.html [].
FEIS ABBREVIATION:
SYMLON
SYNONYMS:
None
NRCS PLANT CODE [55]:
SYLO
COMMON NAMES:
desert snowberry
longflower snowberry
TAXONOMY:
The scientific name of desert snowberry is
Symphoricarpos longiflorus Gray (Caprifoliaceae) [11,22,24,57,58].
There are no recognized infrataxa.
Because of the paucity of specific information on desert snowberry, some
reference is made to the genus of snowberries (Symphoricarpos spp.) in
this review.
LIFE FORM:
Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:
None
OTHER STATUS:
None
Plants database provides a distributional map of desert snowberry.
The following lists include North American ecosystems, habitat types, and
forest and range cover types in which desert snowberry may occur. These
lists are not necessarily exhaustive or completely inclusive. More information
is needed regarding areas where desert snowberry may be part of the flora.
ECOSYSTEMS [16]:
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES30 Desert shrub
FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
STATES/PROVINCES: (key to state/province abbreviations)
UNITED STATES
| AZ | CA | CO |
| ID | NV | NM |
| OR | TX | UT |
In a description of northern Nevada sagebrush plant associations, Zamora and Tueller [65] list plants occurring with desert snowberry. Shrubs occurring with desert snowberry in northern Nevada include low sagebrush (A. arbuscula), big sagebrush (A. tridentata), fringed sagebrush (A. frigida), black sagebrush (A. nova), green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus), antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), and gray horsebrush (Tetradymia canescens). Grasses associated with desert snowberry in northern Nevada are bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda), and Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis).
Issacson [21] lists Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), curlleaf mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius), and Idaho fescue as plants associated with desert snowberry in the pinyon-juniper woodlands of central Nevada and Utah.
Classifications describing plant communities in which desert snowberry is a dominant species are:
Desert snowberry is a native, perennial shrub mostly 20 to 39 inches (50-100
cm) tall [58]. Low spreading branches 20 to 39 inches (50-100 cm) long [22] are
commonly spread at right angles to the stem [58]. Older branches become fibrous and
shreddy [57], and smaller twigs tend to persist so plants may be "somewhat thorny"
[11]. The deciduous leaves are simple and opposite [57]. Perfect flowers [22] are solitary
or paired in leaf axils, or in small, terminal, few-flowered racemes [58] and produce
a berry-like drupe with 2 nutlets
[57].
RAUNKIAER [44] LIFE FORM:
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES:
Information concerning regeneration of desert snowberry is scant. Vines [57] states
desert snowberry can be propagated by seeds. Bradley and others [8] describe desert
snowberry has having a root crown and rhizomes that sprout after fire. Presumably, sprouting
would occur after other forms of disturbance.
McArthur and others [33] state all species of snowberry establish readily from seed and cuttings from wild plants and that plants spread rapidly by layering.
Breeding system: Snowberries produce perfect flowers [22] so are considered monoecious.
Pollination: No information is available on this topic.
Seed production: No information is available on this topic.
Seed dispersal: There are no direct references to seed dispersal of desert snowberry in the available literature as of this writing (2005). The seeds of desert snowberry are eaten by birds, especially the gallinaceous birds such as ring-necked pheasants, grouse, and quail [57]. In a study of western snowberry (S. occidentalis), Pelton [40] concluded that "at least some" of western snowberry nutlets would survive passing through the digestive system of birds, so birds could act as seed dispersal agents. Since the nutlets of desert snowberry are similar to those of western snowberry, birds likely play a part in seed dispersal of desert snowberry. McArthur and others [33] state mice and other small rodents cache seeds of snowberries, and plants are widely established from these caches [41].
Since snowberries produce drupes as a fruit, it is reasonable to assume wind plays little role in desert snowberry seed dispersal. Pelton [40], in a discussion of western snowberry, states, "Wind is probably of very minor importance in dispersal."
Seed banking: There is no information in the literature concerning desert snowberry and seed banking. Snowberries in general have a tough seed coat and a partially developed embryo, which sometimes delays germination [41]. This delay in germination may provide a small, temporary seed bank. Morgan and Neuenschwander [37] reported finding seeds of both common snowberry (S. albus) and creeping snowberry (S. mollis) in the seed bank after clearcutting and broadcast burning in northern Idaho. The authors comment that seeds of neither species had been reported in previous seed bank studies.
Germination: As of this writing (2005), there is no information available concerning germination of desert snowberry seeds. Stanton [51] discusses germination of mountain snowberry (S. oreophilus), a plant very similar to desert snowberry, and states mountain snowberry has a seed germination rate of 67% to 78%.
Seedling establishment/growth: No information is available on this topic.
Asexual regeneration:
Bradley and others [8] state desert snowberry has a root crown and rhizomes that sprout after
fire. Additionally, all species of snowberry spread rapidly by
layering [33,41]
SITE CHARACTERISTICS:
Desert snowberry has narrow ecological boundaries and is usually found on
xeric sites [33]. Desert snowberry is common on dry, rocky soils in desert areas
of southern Utah [60]. In the White Mountains of California, desert
snowberry occurs on granitic substrate at an elevation from 9,500 to 10,000 feet
(2,896-3,048 m) [62].
Reported elevational ranges for desert snowberry in some states where it occurs are:
| State | Elevation | Reference |
| Arizona | 4,000 to 8,000 feet (1,219-2,498 m) | [25] |
| California | 4,429 to 5,249 feet (1,350-1,600 m) | [20] |
| 4,500 to 10,000 feet (1,392-3,048 m) | [38] | |
| Colorado | about 5,000 feet (1,524 m) | [18] |
| Nevada | 3,800 to 7,500 feet (1,158-2,286 m) | [24] |
| New Mexico | 6,000 to 8,000 feet (1,829-2,438 m) | [32] |
| Texas | 5,000 to 6,500 feet (1,524-1,981 m) | [42] |
| Utah | 3,002 to 9,514 feet (915-2,900 m) | [58] |
Stanton [51] describes the minimum mean annual precipitation for desert
snowberry occurrence as 8 to 9 inches (203-229 mm).
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:
Bradley and others [8] describe postfire successional patterns in late-successional juniper
woodlands in western Utah, and desert snowberry is listed as an understory shrub in these
woodlands. After fire the shrub stage of succession occurs in mid- to late-seral development
but before the late-successional stage of a closed juniper woodland.
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:
Flowering dates for desert snowberry are:
| State | Flowering dates |
| Arizona | April to August [25] |
| Nevada | May to June [24] |
| New Mexico | May to August [32] |
| Texas | May to August [42,57] |
Fire regimes: Bradley and others [8] place desert snowberry within a fire group in Utah that consists of late-successional stands dominated by pinyon, juniper or both. In the presettlement era, fire was a relatively common event in pinyon-juniper stands. Fire increased productivity of understory species like desert snowberry. Specific fire history studies of pinyon-juniper are few, with none focusing on Utah, but the literature contains studies of fire history of pinyon-juniper stands in other areas.
Leopold [31] suggests fire occurred at intervals of 10 to 30 years for Colorado pinyon-alligator juniper (P. edulis-J. deppeana) in Arizona. On 4 study sites in the climax western juniper (J. occidentalis) stands of southwestern Idaho, fire-free intervals were 23, 18, 8, and 11 years between the years 1840 and 1910 [9]. Moir [35] believed that Mexican pinyon (P. cembroides) stands in the Chisos Mountains of Texas could be maintained in a "natural" condition by fire occurring every "50 years or so."
The following list provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where desert snowberry is important. It may not be inclusive. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".
| Community or Ecosystem | Dominant Species | Fire Return Interval Range (years) |
| silver sagebrush steppe | Artemisia cana | 5-45 [19,43,61] |
| sagebrush steppe | Artemisia tridentata/Pseudoroegneria spicata | 20-70 [39] |
| basin big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. tridentata | 12-43 [45] |
| mountain big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana | 15-40 [2,9,34] |
| Wyoming big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis | 10-70 (40**) [56,64] |
| California montane chaparral | Ceanothus and/or Arctostaphylos spp. | 50-100 [39] |
| curlleaf mountain-mahogany* | Cercocarpus ledifolius | 13-1,000 [3,47] |
| mountain-mahogany-Gambel oak scrub | Cercocarpus ledifolius-Quercus gambelii | < 35 to < 100 |
| blackbrush | Coleogyne ramosissima | < 35 to < 100 |
| western juniper | Juniperus occidentalis | 20-70 |
| Rocky Mountain juniper | Juniperus scopulorum | < 35 |
| pinyon-juniper | Pinus-Juniperus spp. | < 35 [39] |
| Mexican pinyon | Pinus cembroides | 20-70 [35,53] |
| Colorado pinyon | Pinus edulis | 10-400+ [15,17,26,39] |
| Jeffrey pine | Pinus jeffreyi | 5-30 [1] |
| interior ponderosa pine* | Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum | 2-30 [1,4,30] |
| Arizona pine | Pinus ponderosa var. arizonica | 2-15 [4,10,48] |
| oak-juniper woodland (Southwest) | Quercus-Juniperus spp. | < 35 to < 200 [39] |
| interior live oak | Quercus wislizenii | < 35 [1] |
Desert snowberry is browsed by deer and livestock and the seeds are eaten by birds, especially the gallinaceous birds such as ring-necked pheasants, grouse and quail [57]. Sage-grouse in Nevada utilize desert snowberry as both juveniles and adults [46]. The American pika and various ground squirrels also eat the seeds [57].
Kufeld and others [29] provide a literature review of plants utilized by Rocky Mountain mule deer. Desert snowberry is used "lightly" in all seasons but winter, when it is not utilized. Limited summer use of desert snowberry by pronghorns in Utah has been observed [50].
Palatability/nutritional value: Desert snowberry is considered "largely unpalatable" to livestock in the desert regions of Nevada and Utah [54], and is rated as fair in both energy and protein content [12]. Plummer and others [41] give palatability of desert snowberry an overall rating of fair, a winter rating of poor, summer rating of fair, and a spring rating of very good in a discussion of shrubs used in restoring Utah big game range.
Cover value:
Cover value of desert snowberry for big game is limited by its size
(see General Botanical Characteristics).
However, it provides fair cover for both upland game birds and small nongame birds and good cover
for small mammals in Utah [12]. It is reasonable to assume that desert snowberry provides this
same cover value for birds and small mammals in other areas where it occurs.
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:
Desert snowberry has limited range
(see General Distribution)
with relatively narrow environmental constraints
(see Site Characteristics).
Within these limits desert snowberry is "vitally important" for rehabilitation of
disturbed sites because no substitute with similar attributes has been found [36]. McArthur and
others [33] describe longleaf snowberry as having the same adaptive attributes as mountain snowberry
but in more xeric sites. These attributes include erosion control on roadcuts and fills as well as mine
spoils, especially in pinyon-juniper sites in Utah and Nevada. Plummer and others [41] also describe
desert snowberry as having the same adaptive properties as mountain snowberry.
Vines [57] states desert snowberry can be propagated by seeds and softwood or hardwood cuttings.
McArthur and others [33] state all species of snowberry establish readily from seed, wildings, and nursery
stock and that plants spread rapidly by layering.
OTHER USES:
There is little in the available literature concerning alternative uses of
desert snowberry. McArthur and others [33] state snowberries are well suited
as an ornamental on roadsides and recreational areas.
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
The fruit of desert snowberry contains saponin, but in such small quantities
that poisoning rarely occurs [25].
1. Arno, Stephen F. 2000. Fire in western forest ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 97-120. [36984]
2. Arno, Stephen F.; Gruell, George E. 1983. Fire history at the forest-grassland ecotone in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management. 36(3): 332-336. [342]
3. Arno, Stephen F.; Wilson, Andrew E. 1986. Dating past fires in curlleaf mountain-mahogany communities. Journal of Range Management. 39(3): 241-243. [350]
4. Baisan, Christopher H.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1990. Fire history on a desert mountain range: Rincon Mountain Wilderness, Arizona, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 20: 1559-1569. [14986]
5. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
6. Blackburn, Wilbert H.; Eckert, Richard E., Jr.; Tueller, Paul T. 1969. Vegetation and soils of the Coils Creek Watershed. R-48. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, Agricultural Experiment Station. 80 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. [455]
7. Blackburn, Wilbert H.; Eckert, Richard E., Jr.; Tueller, Paul T. 1971. Vegetation and soils of the Rock Springs Watershed. R-83. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, Agricultural Experiment Station. 116 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. [457]
8. Bradley, Anne F.; Noste, Nonan V.; Fischer, William C. 1992. Fire ecology of forests and woodlands of Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-287. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 128 p. [18212]
9. Burkhardt, Wayne J.; Tisdale, E. W. 1976. Causes of juniper invasion in southwestern Idaho. Ecology. 57: 472-484. [565]
10. Cooper, Charles F. 1961. Pattern in ponderosa pine forests. Ecology. 42(3): 493-499. [5780]
11. Cronquist, Arthur; Holmgren, Arthur H.; Holmgren, Noel H.; [and others]. 1984. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 4. Subclass Asteridae, (except Asteraceae). New York: The New York Botanical Garden. 573 p. [718]
12. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]
13. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
14. Flora of North America Association. 2004. Flora of North America: The flora. [Online]. Flora of North America Association (Producer). Available: http://www.fna.org/FNA. [36990]
15. Floyd, M. Lisa; Romme, William H.; Hanna, David D. 2000. Fire history and vegetation pattern in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, USA. Ecological Applications. 10(6): 1666-1680. [37590]
16. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; Lewis, Mont E.; Smith, Dixie R. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
17. Gottfried, Gerald J.; Swetnam, Thomas W.; Allen, Craig D.; [and others]. 1995. Pinyon-juniper woodlands. In: Finch, Deborah M.; Tainter, Joseph A., eds. Ecology, diversity, and sustainability of the Middle Rio Grande Basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-268. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 95-132. [26188]
18. Harrington, H. D. 1964. Manual of the plants of Colorado. 2d ed. Chicago: The Swallow Press, Inc. 666 p. [6851]
19. Heyerdahl, Emily K.; Berry, Dawn; Agee, James K. 1994. Fire history database of the western United States. Final report. Interagency agreement: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency DW12934530; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service PNW-93-0300; University of Washington 61-2239. Seattle, WA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pacific Northwest Research Station; University of Washington, College of Forest Resources. 28 p. [+ Appendices]. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [27979]
20. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1400 p. [21992]
21. Isaacson, H. E. 1966. Description of ecological provinces within the study area. In: Daniel, T. W.; Rivers, R. J.; Isaacson, H. E.; [and others]. Management alternatives for pinyon-juniper woodlands. A. Ecology Phase: the ecology of the pinyon-juniper type of the Colorado Plateau and Basin and Range Provinces. Logan, UT: Bureau of Land Management and Utah Agricultural Experiment Station: 27-54. [1238]
22. Jones, George Neville. 1940. A monograph of the genus Symphoricarpos. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. 21: 201-253. [13499]
23. Kartesz, John T.; Meacham, Christopher A. 1999. Synthesis of the North American flora (Windows Version 1.0), [CD-ROM]. Available: North Carolina Botanical Garden. In cooperation with the Nature Conservancy, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [2001, January 16]. [36715]
24. Kartesz, John Thomas. 1988. A flora of Nevada. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 1729 p. [In 3 volumes]. Dissertation. [42426]
25. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock, Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2d ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1085 p. [6563]
26. Keeley, Jon E. 1981. Reproductive cycles and fire regimes. In: Mooney, H. A.; Bonnicksen, T. M.; Christensen, N. L.; [and others], technical coordinators. Fire regimes and ecosystem properties: Proceedings of the conference; 1978 December 11-15; Honolulu, HI. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-26. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 231-277. [4395]
27. Klebenow, Donald A.; Beall, Robert C. 1978. Fire impacts on birds and mammals on Great Basin rangelands. In: Johnson, Carl, general chairman. Proceedings, 1977 rangeland management and fire symposium; 1977 November 1-3; Casper, WY. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station: 59-62. [1348]
28. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. United States [Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States]. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 1:3,168,000; colored. [3455]
29. Kufeld, Roland C.; Wallmo, O. C.; Feddema, Charles. 1973. Foods of the Rocky Mountain mule deer. Res. Pap. RM-111. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 31 p. [1387]
30. Laven, R. D.; Omi, P. N.; Wyant, J. G.; Pinkerton, A. S. 1980. Interpretation of fire scar data from a ponderosa pine ecosystem in the central Rocky Mountains, Colorado. In: Stokes, Marvin A.; Dieterich, John H., technical coordinators. Proceedings of the fire history workshop; 1980 October 20-24; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-81. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 46-49. [7183]
31. Leopold, Aldo. 1924. Grass, brush, timber, and fire in southern Arizona. Journal of Forestry. 22(6): 1-10. [5056]
32. Martin, William C.; Hutchins, Charles R. 1981. A flora of New Mexico. Volume 2. Germany: J. Cramer. 2589 p. [37176]
33. McArthur, E. Durant; Giunta, Bruce C.; Plummer, A. Perry. 1977. Shrubs for restoration of depleted range and disturbed areas. Utah Science. 35: 28-33. [25035]
34. Miller, Richard F.; Rose, Jeffery A. 1995. Historic expansion of Juniperus occidentalis (western juniper) in southeastern Oregon. The Great Basin Naturalist. 55(1): 37-45. [26637]
35. Moir, William H. 1982. A fire history of the High Chisos, Big Bend National Park, Texas. The Southwestern Naturalist. 27(1): 87-98. [5916]
36. Monsen, Stephen B.; Christensen, Donald R. 1975. Woody plants for rehabilitating rangelands in the Intermountain Region. In: Stutz, Howard C., ed. Wildland shrubs: symposium and workshop proceedings; 1975 November 5-7; Provo, UT. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University: 72-119. [1680]
37. Morgan, P.; Neuenschwander, L. F. 1988. Seed-bank contributions to regeneration of shrub species after clear-cutting and burning. Canadian Journal of Botany. 66: 169-172. [3262]
38. Munz, Philip A. 1974. A flora of southern California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1086 p. [4924]
39. Paysen, Timothy E.; Ansley, R. James; Brown, James K.; [and others]. 2000. Fire in western shrubland, woodland, and grassland ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-volume 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 121-159. [36978]
40. Pelton, John. 1953. Studies on the life-history of Symphoricarpos occidentalis Hook, in Minnesota. Ecological Monographs. 23(1): 17-39. [11957]
41. Plummer, A. Perry; Christensen, Donald R.; Monsen, Stephen B. 1968. Restoring big-game range in Utah. Publ. No. 68-3. Ephraim, UT: Utah Division of Fish and Game. 183 p. [4554]
42. Powell, A. Michael. 1988. Trees & shrubs of Trans-Pecos Texas: Including Big Bend and Guadalupe Mountains National Parks. Big Bend National Park, TX: Big Bend Natural History Association. 536 p. [6130]
43. Quinnild, Clayton L.; Cosby, Hugh E. 1958. Relicts of climax vegetation on two mesas in western North Dakota. Ecology. 39(1): 29-32. [1925]
44. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
45. Sapsis, David B. 1990. Ecological effects of spring and fall prescribed burning on basin big sagebrush/Idaho fescue--bluebunch wheatgrass communities. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 105 p. Thesis. [16579]
46. Savage, David E. 1969. Relation of sage grouse to upland meadows in Nevada. Job Completion Report: Federal Aid in Wildlife Project No. W-39-R-9. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, Nevada Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit. 101 p. [36877]
47. Schultz, Brad W. 1987. Ecology of curlleaf mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius) in western and central Nevada: population structure and dynamics. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 111 p. Thesis. [7064]
48. Seklecki, Mariette T.; Grissino-Mayer, Henri D.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1996. Fire history and the possible role of Apache-set fires in the Chiricahua Mountains of southeastern Arizona. In: Ffolliott, Peter F.; DeBano, Leonard F.; Baker, Malchus, B., Jr.; [and others], tech. coords. Effects of fire on Madrean Province ecosystems: a symposium proceedings; 1996 March 11-15; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-289. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 238-246. [28082]
49. Shiflet, Thomas N., ed. 1994. Rangeland cover types of the United States. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management. 152 p. [23362]
50. Smith, Arthur D.; Beale, Donald M. 1980. Pronghorn antelope in Utah: some research and observations. Publication No. 80-13. Salt Lake City, UT: Utah Division of Wildlife Resources. 88 p. [5305]
51. Stanton, Frank. 1974. Wildlife guidelines for range fire rehabilitation. Tech. Note 6712. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 90 p. [2221]
52. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. FEIS postfire regeneration workshop--April 12: Seral origin of species comprising secondary plant succession in Northern Rocky Mountain forests. 10 p. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [20090]
53. Swetnam, Thomas W.; Baisan, Christopher H.; Caprio, Anthony C.; Brown, Peter M. 1992. Fire history in a Mexican oak-pine woodland and adjacent montane conifer gallery forest in southeastern Arizona. In: Ffolliott, Peter F.; Gottfried, Gerald J.; Bennett, Duane A.; [and others], technical coordinators. Ecology and management of oak and associated woodlands: perspectives in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico: Proceedings; 1992 April 27-30; Sierra Vista, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-218. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 165-173. [19759]
54. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1937. Range plant handbook. Washington, DC. 532 p. [2387]
55. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2005. PLANTS database (2004), [Online]. Available: https://plants.usda.gov /. [34262]
56. Vincent, Dwain W. 1992. The sagebrush/grasslands of the upper Rio Puerco area, New Mexico. Rangelands. 14(5): 268-271. [19698]
57. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 1104 p. [7707]
58. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]
59. West, Neil E.; Tausch, Robin J.; Tueller, Paul T. 1998. A management-oriented classification of pinyon-juniper woodlands of the Great Basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-12. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 42 p. [29131]
60. Wood, Benjamin W. 1965. Revision of Symphoricarpos (Caprifoliaceae) in Utah. Utah Academy Proceedings. 42(II): 203-213. [13497]
61. Wright, Henry A.; Bailey, Arthur W. 1982. Fire ecology: United States and southern Canada. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 501 p. [2620]
62. Wright, R. D.; Mooney, H. A. 1965. Substrate-oriented distribution of bristlecone pine in the White Mountains of California. The American Midland Naturalist. 73(2): 257-284. [2628]
63. Young, James A.; Clements, Charlie D. 1999. Native perennial grass communities of the Carson Desert of northwestern Nevada. In: McArthur, E. Durant; Ostler, W. Kent; Wambolt, Carl L., compilers. Proceedings: shrubland ecotones; 1998 August 12-14; Ephraim, UT. Proceedings RMRS-P-11. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 133-136. [36048]
64. Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A. 1981. Demography and fire history of a western juniper stand. Journal of Range Management. 34(6): 501-505. [2659]
65. Zamora, B.; Tueller, Paul T. 1973. Artemisia arbuscula, A. longiloba, and A. nova habitat types in northern Nevada. The Great Basin Naturalist. 33(4): 225-242. [2688]