|
|
FEIS Home Page |
SPECIES: Yucca baccata
 |
 |
|
| Photo © 2005 George and Audrey DeLange. | Photo © 1994-2002 Bob Ribokas. |
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION:
Groen, Amy H. 2005. Yucca baccata.
In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/shrub/yucbac/all.html [].
FEIS ABBREVIATION:
YUCBAC
SYNONYMS:
Yucca thornberi McKelvey [17].
NRCS PLANT CODE [130]:
YUBA
YUBAB
YUBAB2
COMMON NAMES:
banana yucca
datil yucca
Spanish bayonet
TAXONOMY:
The currently accepted scientific name for banana yucca is Yucca baccata
Torr. (Agavaceae) [54,64,66,68,74,87,110,136,143,144]. Accepted varieties
include:
Y. b. var. baccata
Y. b. var. brevifolia (Schott ex Torr.) L. Benson & Darrow [66,136]
Y. b. var. vespertina (McKelvey) [38,58,66,67,91,98,145]
Hybrids: Banana yucca commonly hybridizes with Y. torreyi [142]. It is also known to hybridize with Don Quixote's lace (Y. treculeana)[110], Mojave yucca (Y. Schidigera) [58,142], and soapweed yucca (Y. glauca) [142].
Throughout this review, banana yucca will refer to all varieties of Y. baccata. A
distinction between the varieties will only be made in the distribution and occurrence
section and where information is available on site characteristics
LIFE FORM:
Shrub
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:
None
OTHER STATUS:
Banana yucca is salvage and harvest restricted in Arizona [5,130] and is protected as a
native species in Nevada [130].
| AZ | CA | CO | LA | NV | NM | TX | UT |
| Chih. | Coah. | Son. |
Banana yucca is found among the fire-adapted Arizona chaparral communities, most commonly appearing in the shrub live oak-banana yucca-ashy silktassel (Garrya flavescens) association with sugar sumac (Rhus ovata), desert ceanothus (Ceanothus greggii), pointleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos pungens), and Pringle manzanita (A. pringlei). It is also prominent in the Arizona cypress (Cupressus arizonica) -shrub live oak association where Emory oak (Q. emoryi), Arizona white oak (Q. arizonica), pointleaf manzanita, and bastardsage (Eriogonum wrightii) are found [31].
On an isolated island plateau in the Grand Canyon, banana yucca was found among Colorado pinyon (P. edulis) and Utah juniper (J. osteosperma) [62]. It occurs on the Kaibab Plateau with Colorado pinyon, Utah juniper, blue grama (B. gracilis), and Stansbury cliffrose (Purshia mexicana var. stansburiana) [112]. In northwestern Arizona it is found with Utah juniper, Stansbury cliffrose, and Nevada ephedra (Ephedra nevadensis) [107], while in the Hualapai Mountains of northeastern Arizona it is associated with singleleaf pinyon (Pinus monophylla)-Utah juniper and interior ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa var. scopulorum) communities [28].
Banana yucca constitutes 3.1% of canopy cover in the Dutchwoman Butte area of central Arizona. It exists alongside redberry juniper (J. coahuilensis), catclaw acacia (Acacia greggii), Parry's agave (Agave parryi), and tulip prickly-pear (Opuntia phaeacantha). The most common grasses in this area include sideoats grama (B. curtipendula), hairy grama (B. hirsuta), and plains lovegrass (Eragrostis intermedia) [4]. In this region it is also found in chaparral-type forests dominated by shrub live oak and true mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus) [102].
In southeastern Arizona banana yucca occurs in 3 community types: Emory oak-pointleaf Manzanita-sacahuista (Nolina microcarpa), shrub live oak-sacahuista-oneseed juniper (J. monosperma), and desert ceanothus-birchleaf mountain-mahogany (C. betuloides)-littleleaf sumac (Rhus microphylla) [140]. Throughout the state it can be found with stemless four-nerve daisy (Tetraneurisa caulis), and bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) [118]. Leaves of banana yucca have been found in fossilized woodrat middens on Picacho Peak where the shrub no longer grows [134].
In New Mexico banana yucca can be found on a variety of landforms. It occurs on alluvial fans with other perennials such as broom snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae), tarbush (Flourensia cernua) [139], creosotebush, soaptree yucca (Y. elata), and honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) [121]. It was found on a lava flow in the Upper Sonoran zone with oneseed juniper, cactus apple (O. engelmannii), and fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canescens) [119]. In a Chihuahuan Desert arroyo, banana yucca can be found in limited abundance with desert willow (Chilopsis linearis), Apache plume (Fallugia paradoxa), netleaf hackberry (Celtis reticulata), tarbush, and honey mesquite [65].
On Mt. Summerford in New Mexico, banana yucca is found on the drier south and west aspects with other representative succulents such as Wheeler sotol (Dasylirion wheeleri), cactus apple, tulip prickly-pear, and purple prickly-pear (O. macrocentra) [88]. Soaptree yucca and tree cholla (O. imbricata) provide vertical structure on Otero Mesa where banana yucca is found among blue grama, black grama, hairy grama, threeawn grasses (Aristida spp.), tobosa (Pleuraphis mutica), and New Mexico feathergrass (Hesperostipa neomexicana) [108]. At Sandia National Laboratory it has been found with Colorado pinyon and oneseed juniper [89].
In the Organ Mountains of New Mexico, banana yucca constituted 6% of cover in chaparral vegetation zones, 2% in savanna and woodland vegetation zones, and 1% in desert grasslands. It was found with true mountain-mahogany, fendlerbush (Fendlera rupicola), gray oak (Q. grisea), and canyon sage (Salvia lycioides) [41]. In southern New Mexico banana yucca co-exists with alligator juniper (J. deppeana), interior ponderosa pine, and gray oak [43]. In the chaparral woodlands of the Central Peloncillo Mountains of southern New Mexico, it constitutes 1% of cover [96].
In southern California, banana yucca can be found in the Tecate Peak Grove with Tecate cypress (Cupressus forbesii), mission manzanita (Xylococcus bicolor), woolyleaf ceanothus (Ceanothus tomentosus), and chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum) [6]. In the Mojave Desert region, it occurs with Cooper's goldenbush (Ericameria cooperi), white burrobrush (Hymenoclea salsola), and desertsenna (Senna armata) [35]. In desert shrub communities it can be found with Joshua tree (Y. brevifolia) and white burrobrush [117].
In Nevada, banana yucca is found within the high desert shrub subtype with blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima), shrubby deervetch (Lotus rigidus), bladdersage (Salazaria mexicana), and Eastern Mojave buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum) [55]. In the southern region of the state, banana yucca occurs with shrubs such as mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana), green ephedra (Ephedra viridis), broom snakeweed [81], blackbrush, and Nevada ephedra [127]. It is associated with the graminoid foxtail chess (Bromus madritensis) [20], forbs such as pincushion flower (Chaenactis fremontii) and flatcrown buckwheat (Eriogonum deflexum) [20], and the Joshua tree [127].
Banana yucca in southwestern Utah is commonly associated with blackbrush communities [10,18,19,21,29,30]. It can be found with such exotics as foxtail chess [19,29,30] and cheatgrass (B. tectorum) [29,30], and occurs on ridgetops, upper slopes, and lower slopes with threadleaf snakeweed (G. microcephala) and broom snakeweed [21]. It is found alongside Utah juniper [10,19], Anderson wolfberry (Lycium andersonii), and antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) [10], and has been found with Mojave desertrue (Thamnosma montana) and desert almond (Prunus fasciculata) in a 37-year-old burn [30].
In southwestern Colorado, banana yucca occurs in Colorado pinyon-juniper-Gambel oak (Q. gambelii) and Gambel oak-serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.) communities along with prickly-pear (Opuntia spp.) and milkvetch (Astragalus spp.) [123]. In Mesa Verde it associates with various plants in areas with diverse burn histories. In a 29-year-old burn area it was found with Utah serviceberry (Amelanchier utahensis), mutton grass (Poa fendleriana), and hairy false goldenaster (Heterotheca villosa) [45]. It occurs with antelope bitterbrush and fendlerbush in a 90-year-old burn area, and with mutton grass and plains prickly-pear (O. polyacantha) in climax communities [46]. Banana yucca has also been found with Fremont's goosefoot (Chenopodium fremontii), Rocky Mountain milkvetch (Astragalus scopulorum), Johnston's knotweed (Polygonum douglasii ssp. johnstonii), and mountain snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus) 1 year after fire, and with prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola), showy goldeneye (Heliomeris multiflora), Utah serviceberry, and Gambel oak 2 years following fire [49].
In Texas, banana yucca is found with other important succulents such as lechuguilla (Agave lechuguilla), smooth-leaf sotol (D. leiophyllum), soaptree yucca, and Torrey's yucca (Y. torreyi) [135]. It is found on south-facing slopes in the Mount Livermore area with Colorado pinyon, gray oak, hairy grama, and true mountain-mahogany [59]. Its range extends into western Louisiana where it can be found south of the Arkansas River in rocky pinyon-juniper stands [144].
In Mexico, banana yucca can be found in the Madrean evergreen woodlands with rainbow hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus rigidissimus), barrel cactus (Ferocactus wislizenii), walkingstick cactus (O. spinosior), and tulip prickly-pear [23]. It is of moderate importance in the Tornilla clay bed region of northern Mexico where it occurs with creosotebush, tarbush, and lechuguilla [97], and can be found in the lower elevations of the trans-Pecos region with creosotebush, Texas barometer bush (Leucophyllum frutescens), lechuguilla, and Parry's agave [25].
Banana yucca occurs in the Mojave, Sonoran, and Chihuahuan desert systems. Vegetation typical of the Mojave Desert also includes creosotebush, Joshua tree, blackbrush, prickly-pear [141], and big galleta (Pleuraphis rigida) [36]. In the Chihuahuan Desert banana yucca occurred on 10% of 50 surveyed quadrats and could be found with creosotebush, lechuguilla, and range ratany (Krameria parvifolia) [116]. In the Sonoran Desert banana yucca is found in the pinyon-juniper woodlands and in creosotebush scrub [84]
In desert plains grasslands banana yucca can be found with honey mesquite, whitethorn acacia (Acacia constricta), catclaw acacia, and ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens) [147]. Banana yucca is also a characteristic succulent in semidesert grasslands along with Torrey's yucca, Thompson's yucca (Y. thompsoniana), Mojave yucca (Y. schidigera), and Eve's needle (Y. faxoniana) [23]. It can be found on the center portion of the bajadas with both Joshua tree and Mojave yucca [86].
 |
 |
|
| Photo © 2003 Kenneth Ingham. | Photo © George and Audrey DeLange. |
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
This description provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology
and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available
[38,54,58,87,91,98,136,142,145].
Banana yucca is a native, perennial shrub. It can reach heights of up to 30 feet (9.1 m) [57] and has a stem supporting a dense cluster of leaves near the ground. Leaves are concave and rigid, supporting coarse, recurved fibers along the margins [38,54,56,87,98]. Leaf clusters are approximately 24 to 30 inches (60-75 cm) high and twice as wide [98] with individual blades reaching lengths of 20 to 40 inches (51-102 cm), widths of 1.25 to 1.50 inches (3.2-3.8 cm) [136], and ending at the apex with a stiff spine 1.5 to 7.0 mm in length [38].
Banana yucca produces both procumbent and rhizomatous stems. Procumbent stems are always aerial and terminate in a head of leaves. The rhizomatous stems are 3.1 to 5.9 inches (8-15 cm) in diameter, 7.9 to 21.7 inches (20-55 cm) long, and covered with thick bark. Adventitious roots sprout from the underside of the rhizomes, and 1 or 2 adventitious sprouts emerge from the upper surface. Rhizomatous stems are long-lived and can take the form of a complex net beneath the soil surface [142].
The flowers of banana yucca are in dense panicles [143,144] found mostly among the
leaves [54]. The panicle is 12 to 36 inches (30.5-91.4 cm) long with 11 to 18 flowering
branches [136]. The fruit is large, conical, and pendulous, varying from 5.9 to
7.9 inches (15-20 cm) in length [56]. Extended water storage is achieved through
thickened leaves and leaf bases [100]. Banana yucca experiences crassulacean acid
metabolism (CAM), allowing carbohydrate stores built up in the summer and early
spring to assist during the reproductive period in late spring [85]. Computer simulations
have shown that a 3-year reproductive cycle is likely [139]. Seeds are 0.3 to 0.5
inches (8-12 mm) long and slightly ridged [98].
RAUNKIAER [113] LIFE FORM:
Geophyte
Stem succulent
REGENERATION PROCESSES:
Banana yucca is able to reproduce vegetatively through basal bud
sprouts and rhizomes. It reproduces less frequently from seed [142].
Breeding system: Banana yucca is monoecious [105].
Pollination: Banana yucca is pollinated by the nocturnal pronuba moth [104]. Moths specific to banana yucca can remain in diapause for up to 30 years, emerging only when climatic cues are optimal for development [111]. These same moths may be responsible for the creation of Y. baccata x Y. schidigera hybrids [80].
Seed production: Seed production of banana yucca is plentiful [136,144]. Viable seeds depend on sufficient, high quality pollen transfer, adequate resources for seed development, and safe insertion of the yucca moth's ovipositor through the locular wall so as not to damage ovules [1]. In a study conducted to determine the effects of seed predation on banana yucca, 10% to 12% of seeds were lost to moth larvae. The total number of viable, uneaten seeds per fruit for banana yucca was 116 with very few of them being lost to predation [70]. Tenebrionidae larvae have the greatest effect on seedling survival, spreading bacterial and fungal infection to seeds and inflorescence stalks [139].
Seed dispersal: Banana yucca seeds are dispersed by vertebrates [150]. By consuming the fleshy outer portions of the fruit, rabbits and woodrats expose the seeds for dispersal [139].
Seed banking: No information is available on this topic.
Germination: Germination of banana yucca seeds has been studied in laboratory settings. Borland [15] found that with temperatures of 60° to 70 °F (16° to 21 °C), germination occurred in as few as 7 days. While researching the effects of heat on various yuccas, Keeley and Meyers [71] found that germination rates of banana yucca were highest when exposed to 194 °F (90 °C) temperatures for 5 minutes and plummeted to 0% when exposed for a period of 2 hours or to temperatures of 230°F (110 °C) and greater for more than 5 minutes. Germination was 84% when seeds were kept at room temperature.
Seedling establishment/growth: Very few seeds of banana yucca develop into seedlings [150]. Only 9 seedlings were counted in southern New Mexico during 4 years of observing seedling emergence [142]. Yuccas grow slowly and utilize the same leaves for many years; this reduces the amount of energy used in producing biomass [39].
Asexual regeneration: Asexual reproduction of banana yucca is achieved through the propagation of basal nodules and sprouts from rhizomes [142].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS:
| State | Elevation Range |
| Arizona | 3,500-7,500 feet (1,100-2,300 m) [26,90] |
| California | 4,600-4,300 feet (800-1,300 m) [58] |
| Colorado | 5,500-7,900 feet (1,700-2,400 m) [45,56] |
| Nevada | 2,700-8,000 feet (800-2,400 m) [67,91] |
| New Mexico | ≥6,400 feet (2,000 m) [43,73] |
| Utah | 4,700-8,000 feet (1,400-2,400 m) [21,125] |
Banana yucca is found scattered throughout Arizona. Near the Grand Canyon and throughout central Arizona it can be found in poorly developed soils [4,102] composed primarily of limestone and quartzite with pH values ranging from 8.2 to 8.7 [62] and an average annual rainfall of 16.5 inches (419 mm) [93]. In the Hualapai Mountains of northwestern Arizona, banana yucca occurs in areas where granite outcrops and shallow, well-drained soils are characteristic [28]. On the Fort Bowie National Historic Site in southeastern Arizona it is common on rocky soils, canyons, washes, and slopes [140].
In southwestern Utah banana yucca exists in areas characterized by an average annual precipitation of 11.7 inches (296 mm) [21] and shallow soils with an average pH of 8.5 [29]. Temperatures range from -12º to 106 ºF (-24 to 41 ºC) with a mean annual temperature of 34 ºF (1 ºC). It can be found on east and southeast facing aspects in mixed alluvium derived from gneiss, limestone, sandstone, and schist. Slopes range from 2% [19] to 20% [21].
Banana yucca in New Mexico can be found in soils ranging from fine sandy loam [65,108] to undeveloped parent material near bedrock outcrops [89]. It occurs on an arroyo in the Chihuahuan Desert [65] and along the alluvial slopes of washes [139]. In the Organ Mountains it is considered to be more mesic than xeric and can be found on high-elevation south-facing slopes and moderate-elevation east and west exposures [41]. Banana yucca occurs on compacted and disturbed sandy soils in pinyon-juniper woodlands of southeastern New Mexico [73].
In Nevada banana yucca is generally found on west- and south-facing aspects of dry slopes and washes where precipitation averages 6 inches (152 mm) annually. Soils are primarily an alkaline limestone [122]. Site characteristics in southern Nevada include an average annual rainfall of less than 11.8 inches (300 mm), daytime relative humidity levels of less than 20% during summer months [81], and air temperatures that range from -11 to 117 ºF (-24 to 47 ºC) [83]. It occurs in dry washes and in areas with no significant slope exposure [20].
In the Mojave desert of southern California, banana yucca was recorded in a wash composed of alluvium at least 9.8 feet (3 m) thick [35]. It can be found on dry slopes [98] and in dry Joshua tree woodlands [58]. In southwestern Colorado it occurs on dry plains and slopes [56] on shallow, fine sandy loam soils [45].
Y. baccata var. brevifolia can be found in southeastern Arizona on undeveloped
soils with mixed grasses and other desert shrubs [40]. It tends to occur in moist regions at elevations
ranging from 3000 to 4000 feet (914-1,219 m). Y. b. var. vespertina occurs on hillsides
and plains at elevations of 2000 to 7000 feet (610-2,134 m), taking root in a variety of soil
types [13].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS:
In Mesa Verde, Colorado, banana yucca was observed in 3 separate postburn environments and
occurred at the highest cover and frequency, 13% and 40% respectively, 90 years following fire.
It was observed with 6% cover and 16% frequency on a 29-year old burn and 2% cover and 14%
frequency on a 4-century-old stand [46]. Elsewhere in Colorado banana yucca has been found
1 and 2 years after fire [49].
A study of fire effects on blackbrush communities in southwestern Utah revealed populations
of banana yucca on unburned sites and sites of various time since fire. Banana yucca populations
represented 0.1% mean cover on a 1-year-old burn, 1.6% mean cover on a 12-year-old burn, and 5.5%
mean cover on a 37-year-old burn [30]. Banana yucca is distinct from other yucca species in that it
does well in partially shaded environments [15].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT:
Banana yucca builds up carbohydrate stores through the summer and early spring months to utilize
during the reproductive period in late spring [85]. Flowering dates for banana yucca range from
March to July [38,54,67,98,122,136,138,150] with plants at higher elevation flowering later in
the season [142].
Fire regimes: Fires tend to be rare in both creosotebush and blackbrush Mojave Desert ecosystems [61]. In the blackbrush habitat of southwestern Utah, invasion of foxtail chess has increased the ability of fire to spread and may be shortening the fire return interval [19]. In pinyon-juniper ecosystems where fire historically occurred every 10 to 30 years, grazing has reduced fine fuel coverage and resulted in less frequent, lower intensity fires [148].
The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where banana yucca is found. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes".
| Community or Ecosystem | Dominant Species | Fire Return Interval Range (years) |
| California chaparral | Adenostoma and/or Arctostaphylos spp. | <35 to <100 [103] |
| mountain big sagebrush | Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana | 15-40 [8,27,95] |
| desert grasslands | Bouteloua eriopoda and/or Pleuraphis mutica | <35 to <100 [103] |
| plains grasslands | Bouteloua spp. | <35 [103,148] |
| blue grama-tobosa prairie | Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis mutica | <35 to <100 [103] |
| cheatgrass | Bromus tectorum | <10 [106,146] |
| California montane chaparral | Ceanothus and/or Arctostaphylos spp. | 50-100 |
| paloverde-cactus shrub | Parkinsonia microphylla/Opuntia spp. | <35 to <100 |
| mountain-mahogany-Gambel oak scrub | Cercocarpus ledifolius-Quercus gambelii | <35 to <100 |
| blackbrush | Coleogyne ramosissima | <35 to <100 |
| Arizona cypress | Cupressus arizonica | <35 to 200 |
| juniper-oak savanna | Juniperus ashei-Quercus virginiana | <35 |
| Ashe juniper | Juniperus ashei | <35 [103] |
| creosotebush | Larrea tridentata | <35 to <100 |
| Ceniza shrub | Larrea tridentata-Leucophyllum frutescens-Prosopis glandulosa | <35 |
| pinyon-juniper | Pinus-Juniperus spp. | <35 |
| Colorado pinyon | Pinus edulis | 10-400+ [48,53,69,103] |
| interior ponderosa pine* | Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum | 2-30 [7,9,79] |
| mesquite | Prosopis glandulosa | <35 to <100 [92,103] |
| mesquite-buffalo grass | Prosopis glandulosa-Buchloe dactyloides | <35 |
| Texas savanna | Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa | <10 [103] |
| California oakwoods | Quercus spp. | <35 [7] |
| oak-juniper woodland (Southwest) | Quercus-Juniperus spp. | <35 to <200 [103] |
| live oak | Quercus virginiana | 10 to<100 [137] |
Two years after the August, 1996, Chapin 5 fire in southwestern Colorado, species recovery was observed. The number of points at which banana yucca was recorded in comparison to the number of points in each vegetation type were as follows [49]:
| September, 1997 | June, 1998 | August, 1998 | |
| Shrubs | 0.19 | 0.18 | 0.19 |
| Pinyon-juniper/oak | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.10 |
| Pinyon-juniper | 0.14 | 0.06 | 0.12 |
Banana yucca populations in 3 previously burned blackbrush shrubland ecotones were significantly less (P<0.05) than populations in adjacent unburned sites. Seventeen years after a 1979 fire, the mean density of banana yucca was 0.4±0.03 individuals per 100 m², while on an adjacent unburned site plant density was 2.4±0.3 individuals per 100 m². Eight years after a 1987 fire, populations went from a mean density of 1.2±0.20 individuals per 100 m² compared to no recorded individuals on the unburned plot. In the year following a 1995 fire, banana yucca had a mean density of 3.9±0.7 individuals per 100 m² and the adjacent unburned site had 5.5±0.9 individuals per 100 m² [82]. Banana yucca constituted 5.5% of absolute cover in southwestern Utah 37 years following a burn. Measurements were also conducted on 1, 2, 6, 12, 17, and 19.5 year-old burn sites and revealed absolute coverage percentages ranging from 0% to 1.6% [30].
Near Mesa, Arizona, populations of banana yucca decreased after the Vista
Fire despite their apparent ability to survive fire in the area [2]. As a result
of recent watering by local residents, banana yucca plants survived a fire that
burned over private property in southern Australia during the hottest summer in
90 years [115]. For additional information on succession of banana
yucca see Successional Status.
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
Fire in blackbrush habitat types where banana yucca is found can lead to undesirable
forage species such as threadleaf snakeweed inhabiting the area [19]. Prescribed burning
during fall months may protect banana yucca during reproductive periods, and burning
after rain events may increase overall survivorship. Despite the negative effect that fire
has on seeds, it is not likely to eliminate banana yucca because of its ability to resprout.
Increased amounts of Mg, Ca, K, Mn, P, and N are found underneath banana yucca after fire and may stimulate germination of other species such as coyote tobacco (Nicotiana attenuata) [10]. Invasive species have the potential to modify severity, frequency, and seasonality of fires.
Banana yucca is consumed by elk in the pinyon-juniper woodlands of Bandelier National Monument in New Mexico [3]. Bighorn sheep browse on the leaves and fruit of banana yucca, and various parts of the plant are also utilized by small rodents [55], birds, and insects [12]. Although they are an insignificant part of their diet, javelina have been spotted feeding on the fruit of banana yucca [75].
Palatability/nutritional value: Banana yucca flower stalks are highly digestible and are an important source of phosphorus [132]. In Arizona the stalks provide 4% of mule deer dietary needs from May through June, adding protein, fiber, and calcium to their diets [131]. Banana yucca provides 1% to 5% of desert mule deer dietary needs during winter months [76] while providing less than 1% of the dietary needs for Rocky Mountain mule deer [78]. In Utah, it has moderate value as a food source for small nongame birds [42].
Cover value:
In Utah, banana yucca provides poor cover for elk, mule deer, antelope and waterfowl.
It provides fair cover for small nongame birds and small mammals, and good cover
for upland game birds [42].
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES:
Propagation via basal nodules and young sprouts of banana yucca has proven
successful [142] and may provide opportunities for colonizing sites where banana
yucca previously existed. Banana yucca can also be grown from seed and bare
root plantings and relocated to appropriate sites. Transplants were successfully
grown in loam and silt, potted in peat and sandy loam, and transferred to a
south-facing slope with sandy clay loam soils [122]. Banana yucca seeds are
available commercially [129].
Banana yucca plants were salvaged from the East Mojave Desert by hand digging
before mining operations. They were planted at a nursery site, and exposed roots
were dusted with sulfur powder to reduce the risk of airborne infections. Between
1 and 2 years after relocation, 71% of banana yucca were in excellent condition
(no yellowing of leaves), 15% were in poor condition, and 14% died (no green leaves
remaining) [51].
OTHER USES:
Various Native American tribes have extended histories encompassing a wide range
of uses for banana yucca. It has commonly been utilized as a food source [32]
with fruits often consumed in their raw form before fully ripening [12,33].
Cakes were often made by pit roasting the fruits [114], grinding them into
a paste, and drying the resulting material in the form of cakes [12] which could
later be traded [114] or rehydrated and made into a syrup or jelly [44]. Fermented
banana yucca has been used for beverages [67], its juices utilized as a preservative [33],
and in northern New Mexico it was used to make rum [57]. Seeds were dried and ground
up into meal, and central leaves were heated with soups or broiled with meat [12].
Banana yucca is preferred over other yuccas because of its strength [16] and many uses.
Tough fibers extracted from the leaves have been used in home building [109] and to make
products such as hair brushes, sandals, baskets, mats, fish nets, clothing, cords [12],
brooms, and soaps [91]. Banana yucca is used for ceremonial purposes and as a remedy
for vomiting and heartburn [44]. Approximately 40% of the fiber in banana yucca leaves is
extractable [142].
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:
A variety of insects utilize banana yucca stalks and pods, potentially benefiting the
plant by allowing seeds to be dispersed after stalks with reduced vigor fall to the
ground [94]. In New Mexico the yucca plant bug prefers banana yucca and consumes
substantial portions of photosynthesizing plant material, possibly reducing growth [50].
Banana yucca habitat in south-central New Mexico is home to black-throated sparrow populations, containing "up to 44% of successful nests" [108]. In the Nevada desert uplands, banana yucca is found in habitat supporting Gambel's quail [55].
In a pinyon-juniper woodland in Arizona, banana yucca production declined from 5 kg/ha to 0 kg/ha after removal of the overstory [34]. A study conducted in New Mexico found that banana yucca populations increased when rabbits and cattle were reintroduced after 12 years of exclusion and shrub seedlings allowed to grow following 12 years of removal [11]. In U.S. wilderness areas banana yucca is considered resistant to trampling damage [37].
1. Addicott, John F. 1986. Variation in the costs and benefits of mutualism: the interaction between yuccas and yucca moths. Oecologia. 70: 486-494. [8880]
2. Alford, Eddie J.; Brock, John H. 2002. The effects of fire on Sonoran Desert plant communities. Final Report: RMRS-99164-RJVA. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 111 p. [Alford's Dissertation]. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [47514]
3. Allen, Craig D. 1996. Elk response to the La Mesa Fire and current status in the Jemez Mountains. In: Allen, Craig D., ed. Fire effects in Southwestern forests: Proceedings, 2nd La Mesa fire symposium; 1994 March 29-31; Los Alamos, NM. RM-GTR-286. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 179-195. [27292]
4. Ambos, Norman; Robertson, George; Douglas, Jason. 2000. Dutchwoman Butte: a relict grassland in central Arizona. Rangelands. 22(2): 3-8. [35904]
5. Arizona Department of Agriculture, Plant Services Division. 1999. [Category] B: Salvage restricted protected native plants, [Online]. In: Protected plant list. Appendix A: Protected native plants by categories. Available: http://agriculture.state.az.us/PSD/protplantlst3.htm [2004, November 1]. [50093]
6. Armstrong, Wayne P. 1966. Ecological and taxonomic relationships of Cupressus in southern California. Los Angles, CA: California State College. 129 p. Thesis. [21332]
7. Arno, Stephen F. 2000. Fire in western forest ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 97-120. [36984]
8. Arno, Stephen F.; Gruell, George E. 1983. Fire history at the forest-grassland ecotone in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management. 36(3): 332-336. [342]
9. Baisan, Christopher H.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1990. Fire history on a desert mountain range: Rincon Mountain Wilderness, Arizona, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 20: 1559-1569. [14986]
10. Baldwin, Ian T.; Morse, Laura. 1994. Up in smoke: II. Germination of Nicotiana attenuata in response to smoke-derived cues and nutrients in burned and unburned soils. Journal of Chemical Ecology. 20(9): 2373-2391. [24209]
11. Beck, Reldon F.; Tober, Dwight A. 1985. Vegetational changes on creosotebush sites after removal of shrubs, cattle and rabbits. Bull. 717. Las Cruces, NM: New Mexico State University, Agricultural Experiment Station. 22 p. [4467]
12. Bell, Willis H.; Castetter, Edward F. 1941. Ethnobiological studies in the American Southwest. IV. The utilization of yucca, sotol, and beargrass by the aborigines in the American Southwest. University of New Mexico Bulletin. 5(5): 1-74. [38174]
13. Benson, Lyman. 1943. Revisions of status of southwestern desert trees and shrubs. American Journal of Botany. 30(3): 230-240. [49033]
14. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
15. Borland, Jim. 1994. Yucca baccata. American Nurseryman. 179(9): 114. [54570]
16. Botkin, C. W.; Shires, L. B. 1944. Tensile strength of yucca fibers. Technical Bulletin 316. Las Cruces, NM: New Mexico State University, Agricultural Experiment Station. 30 p. [4527]
17. Bowers, Janice E.; McLaughlin, Steven P. 1987. Flora and vegetation of the Rincon Mountains, Pima County, Arizona. Desert Plants. 8(2): 50-94. [495]
18. Bowns, James E. 1973. An autecological study of blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima Torr.) in southeastern Utah. Logan, UT: Utah State University. 115 p. Dissertation. [4972]
19. Bowns, James E.; West, Neil E. 1976. Blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima Torr.) on southwestern Utah rangelands. Research Report 27. Logan, UT: Utah State University, Utah Agricultural Experiment Station. 27 p. [3831]
20. Bradley, W. G. 1965. A study of the blackbrush plant community of the Desert Game Range. Transactions, Desert Bighorn Council. 11: 56-61. [4380]
21. Brotherson, Jack D.; Masslich, William J. 1985. Vegetation patterns in relation to slope position in the Castle Cliffs area of southern Utah. The Great Basin Naturalist. 45(3): 535-541. [528]
22. Brown, David E. 1982. Great Basin conifer woodland. In: Brown, David E., ed. Biotic communities of the American Southwest--United States and Mexico. Desert Plants. 4(1-4): 52-57. [535]
23. Brown, David E. 1982. Madrean evergreen woodland. In: Brown, David E., ed. Biotic communities of the American Southwest--United States and Mexico. Desert Plants. 4(1-4): 59-65. [8886]
24. Brown, David E. 1982. Semidesert grassland. In: Brown, David E., ed. Biotic communities of the American Southwest--United States and Mexico. Desert Plants. 4(1-4): 123-131. [3603]
25. Bryant, Vaughn B., Jr. 1974. Late quaternary pollen records from the east-central periphery of the Chihuahuan Desert. In: Wauer, Roland H.; Riskind, David H., eds. Transactions of the symposium on the biological resources of the Chihuahuan Desert region, United States and Mexico; 1974 October 17-18; Alpine, TX. Transactions and Proceedings Series No. 3. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service: 3-21. [16055]
26. Buegge, J. Jeremy. 2001. Flora of the Santa Teresa Mountains in Graham County, Arizona. Journal of the Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science. 33(2): 132-149. [45078]
27. Burkhardt, Wayne J.; Tisdale, E. W. 1976. Causes of juniper invasion in southwestern Idaho. Ecology. 57: 472-484. [565]
28. Butterwick, Mary; Parfitt, Bruce D.; Hillyard, Deborah. 1992. Vascular plants of the northern Hualapai Mountains, Arizona. Journal of the Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science. 24-25: 31-49. [18327]
29. Callison, James; Brotherson, Jack D. 1985. Habitat relationships of the blackbrush community (Coleogyne ramosissima) of southwestern Utah. The Great Basin Naturalist. 45(2): 321-326. [23511]
30. Callison, Jim; Brotherson, Jack D.; Bowns, James E. 1985. The effects of fire on the blackbrush [Coleogyne ramosissima] community of southwestern Utah. Journal of Range Management. 38(6): 535-538. [593]
31. Carmichael, R. S.; Knipe, O. D.; Pase, C. P.; Brady, W. W. 1978. Arizona chaparral: plant associations and ecology. Res. Pap. RM-202. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 16 p. [3038]
32. Castetter, Edward F. 1935. Ethnobiological studies in the American Southwest. Biological Series No. 4: Volume 1. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico. 62 p. [35938]
33. Castetter, Edward F.; Opler, M. E. 1936. Ethnobiological studies in the American Southwest. III. The ethnobiology of the Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache. University of New Mexico Bulletin. 4(5): 1-63. [38173]
34. Clary, Warren P.; Jameson, Donald A. 1981. Herbage production following tree and shrub removal in the pinyon-juniper type of Arizona. Journal of Range Management. 34(2): 109-113. [642]
35. Cody, M. L. 1986. Spacing patterns in Mojave Desert plant communities: near-neighbor analyses. Journal of Arid Environments. 11: 199-217. [4411]
36. Cody, Martin L. 1993. Do cholla cacti (Opuntia spp., subgenus Cylindropuntia) use or need nurse plants in the Mojave Desert? Journal of Arid Environments. 24: 139-154. [22628]
37. Cole, David N. 1987. Research on soil and vegetation in wilderness: a state-of-knowledge review. In: Lucas, Robert C., compiler. Proceedings--national wilderness research conference: issues, state-of-knowledge, future directions; 1985 July 23-26; Fort Collins, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-220. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 135-177. [19587]
38. Cronquist, Arthur; Holmgren, Arthur H.; Holmgren, Noel H.; [and others]. 1977. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 6. The Monocotyledons. New York: Columbia University Press. 584 p. [719]
39. Crosswhite, Frank S.; Crosswhite, Carol D. 1984. A classification of life forms of the Sonoran Desert, with emphasis on the seed plants and their survival strategies. Desert Plants. 5: 131-161. [45807]
40. Darrow, Robert A. 1944. Arizona range resources and their utilization: 1. Cochise County. Tech. Bull. 103. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona, Agricultural Experiment Station: 311-364. [4521]
41. Dick-Peddie, W. A.; Moir, W. H. 1970. Vegetation of the Organ Mountains, New Mexico. Science Series No. 4. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University, Range Science Department. 28 p. [6699]
42. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]
43. Earl, Richard A.; Bash, Dallas L. 1996. Response of alligator juniper (Juniperus deppeana Pinaceae) to historic environmental variability. The Southwestern Naturalist. 41(3): 227-238. [27627]
44. Elmore, Francis H. 1944. Ethnobotany of the Navajo. Monograph Series: 1(7). Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico. 136 p. [35897]
45. Erdman, James A. 1970. Pinyon-juniper succession after natural fires on residual soils of Mesa Verde, Colorado. Brigham Young University Science Bulletin: Biological Series. 11(2): 1-26. [11987]
46. Erdman, James Allen. 1969. Pinyon-juniper succession after fires on residual soils of the Mesa Verde, Colorado. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado. 81 p. Dissertation. [11437]
47. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
48. Floyd, M. Lisa; Romme, William H.; Hanna, David D. 2000. Fire history and vegetation pattern in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, USA. Ecological Applications. 10(6): 1666-1680. [37590]
49. Floyd-Hanna, Lisa; Hanna, David; Romme, William H. 1998. Chapin 5 Fire vegetation monitoring and mitigation annual report, year 2. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Mesa Verde National Park. 7 p. [+ Appendices]. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [34460]
50. Fowler, Harold G. 1980. Behavioral and population ecology of a major Yucca herbivore. In: Ridaura-Sanz, V-E., ed. Yucca. Serie el Desierto: Volumen 3. Saltillo, Coahuli, Mexico: Centro de Investigacion en Quimica Aplicada: 91-113. [55273]
51. Franson, Raymond L. 1995. Health of plants salvaged for revegetation at a Mojave Desert gold mine: year two. In: Roundy, Bruce A.; McArthur, E. Durant; Haley, Jennifer S.; Mann, David K., compilers. Proceedings: wildland shrub and arid land restoration symposium; 1993 October 19-21; Las Vegas, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-315. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 78-80. [24829]
52. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; Lewis, Mont E.; Smith, Dixie R. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
53. Gottfried, Gerald J.; Swetnam, Thomas W.; Allen, Craig D.; [and others]. 1995. Pinyon-juniper woodlands. In: Finch, Deborah M.; Tainter, Joseph A., eds. Ecology, diversity, and sustainability of the Middle Rio Grande Basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-268. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 95-132. [26188]
54. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1392 p. [1603]
55. Gullion, Gordon W. 1960. The ecology of Gambel's quail in Nevada and the arid Southwest. Ecology. 41(3): 518-536. [49039]
56. Harrington, H. D. 1964. Manual of the plants of Colorado. 2d ed. Chicago: The Swallow Press, Inc. 666 p. [6851]
57. Havard, V. 1885. Report on the flora of western and southern Texas. Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 8(29): 449-533. [5067]
58. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1400 p. [21992]
59. Hinckley, L. C. 1944. The vegetation of the Mount Livermore area in Texas. The American Midland Naturalist. 32: 236-250. [4451]
60. Hughes, Lee E. 1998. Thirty years of rotation grazing in the Mojave Desert. Rangelands. 20(4): 6-8. [28913]
61. Humphrey, Robert R. 1974. Fire in the deserts and desert grassland of North America. In: Kozlowski, T. T.; Ahlgren, C. E., eds. Fire and ecosystems. New York: Academic Press: 365-400. [14064]
62. Jameson, Donald A.; Williams, John A.; Wilton, Eugene W. 1962. Vegetation and soils of Fishtail Mesa, Arizona. Ecology. 43(3): 403-410. [28916]
63. Johnson, Hyrum B. 1976. Vegetation and plant communities of southern California deserts--a functional view. In: Latting, June, ed. Symposium proceedings: plant communities of southern California; 1974 May 4; Fullerton, CA. Special Publication No. 2. Berkeley, CA: California Native Plant Society: 125-164. [1278]
64. Jones, Stanley D.; Wipff, Joseph K.; Montgomery, Paul M. 1997. Vascular plants of Texas. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 404 p. [28762]
65. Kamill, Bernardette W.; Steinberger, Y.; Whitford, W. G. 1985. Soil microarthropods from the Chihuahuan Desert of New Mexico. Journal of Zoology. 205: 273-286. [11560]
66. Kartesz, John T.; Meacham, Christopher A. 1999. Synthesis of the North American flora (Windows Version 1.0), [CD-ROM]. Available: North Carolina Botanical Garden. In cooperation with the Nature Conservancy, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [2001, January 16]. [36715]
67. Kartesz, John Thomas. 1988. A flora of Nevada. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 1729 p. [In 3 volumes]. Dissertation. [42426]
68. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock, Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2d ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1085 p. [6563]
69. Keeley, Jon E. 1981. Reproductive cycles and fire regimes. In: Mooney, H. A.; Bonnicksen, T. M.; Christensen, N. L.; Lotan, J. E.; Reiners, W. A., technical coordinators. Fire regimes and ecosystem properties: Proceedings of the conference; 1978 December 11-15; Honolulu, HI. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-26. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 231-277. [4395]
70. Keeley, Jon E.; Keeley, Sterling C.; Swift, Cheryl C.; Lee, Janet. 1984. Seed predation due to the yucca-moth symbiosis. The American Midland Naturalist. 112(1): 187-191. [5808]
71. Keeley, Jon E.; Meyers, Adriene. 1985. Effect of heat on seed germination of southwestern Yucca species. The Southwestern Naturalist. 30(2): 303-304. [5761]
72. Kittams, Walter H. 1973. Effect of fire on vegetation of the Chihuahuan Desert region. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1972 June 8-9; Lubbock, Texas. No. 12. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 427-444. [6271]
73. Knight, Paul J.; Cully, Anne C. 1991. A new species of Astragalus (Fabaceae) from southeastern New Mexico. The Southwestern Naturalist. 36(2): 198-200. [15754]
74. Knipe, O. D.; Pase, C. P.; Carmichael, R. S. 1979. Plants of the Arizona chaparral. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-64. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 54 p. [1365]
75. Knipe, Theodore. 1957. The javelina in Arizona: A research and management study. Wildlife Bulletin No. 2. Phoenix, AZ: State of Arizona, Game and Fish Department. 98 p. [30538]
76. Krausman, Paul R.; Kuenzi, Amy J.; Etchberger, Richard C.; [and others]. 1997. Diets of mule deer. Journal of Range Management. 50(5): 513-522. [27845]
77. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. United States [Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States]. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 1:3,168,000; colored. [3455]
78. Kufeld, Roland C.; Wallmo, O. C.; Feddema, Charles. 1973. Foods of the Rocky Mountain mule deer. Res. Pap. RM-111. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 31 p. [1387]
79. Laven, R. D.; Omi, P. N.; Wyant, J. G.; Pinkerton, A. S. 1980. Interpretation of fire scar data from a ponderosa pine ecosystem in the central Rocky Mountains, Colorado. In: Stokes, Marvin A.; Dieterich, John H., technical coordinators. Proceedings of the fire history workshop; 1980 October 20-24; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-81. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 46-49. [7183]
80. Leebens-Mack, Jim; Pellmyr, Olle; Brock, Marcus. 1998. Host specificity and the genetic structure of two yucca moth species in a yucca hybrid zone. Evolution. 52(5): 1376-1382. [54571]
81. Lei, Simon A. 1999. Gradient analysis of pinyon-juniper woodland in a southern Nevada mountain range. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard, compilers. Sustaining and restoring a diverse ecosystem: Proceedings: ecology and management of pinyon-juniper communities within the Interior West; 1997 September 15-18; Provo, UT. Proceedings RMRS-P-9. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 64-68. [30493]
82. Lei, Simon A. 1999. Vegetation recovery and soil properties in blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima Torr.) shrubland ecotones. Journal of the Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science. 32(2): 105-115. [38855]
83. Lei, Simon A.; Walker, Lawrence R. 1997. Classification and ordination of Coleogyne communities in southern Nevada. The Great Basin Naturalist. 57(2): 155-162. [27721]
84. Lenz, Lee W.; Hanson, Michael A. 2001. Yuccas (Agavaceae) of the international Four Corners: southeastern USA and northwestern Mexico. Aliso. 19(2): 165-179. [54572]
85. Ludwig, John A.; Kemp, Paul R.; Gardetto, Pietra E. 1980. A simulation model of the productivity of the Spanish bayonet, Yucca baccata Torr. In: Ridaura-Sanz, V-E., ed. Yucca. Serie el Desierto: Volumen 3. Saltillo, Coahuli, Mexico: Centro de Investigacion en Quimica Aplicada: 51-68. [54645]
86. MacMahon, James A. 1988. Warm deserts. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Billings, William Dwight, eds. North American terrestrial vegetation. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press: 231-264. [19547]
87. Martin, William C.; Hutchins, Charles R. 1981. A flora of New Mexico. Volume 2. Germany: J. Cramer. 2589 p. [37175]
88. Mata-Gonzalez, Ricardo; Pieper, Rex D.; Cardenas, Manuel M. 2002. Vegetation patterns as affected by aspect and elevation in small desert mountains. The Southwestern Naturalist. 47(3): 440-448. [42557]
89. McAllister, C.; Beckert, H.; Abrams, C.; Bilyard, G.; Cadwell, K.; Friant, S.; Glantz, C.; Mazaika, R.; Miller, K. 1996. Survey of ecological resources at selected U.S. Department of Energy sites, [Online]. U.S. Department of Energy (Producer). Available: http://homer.ornl.gov/oepa/guidance/risk/ecores.pdf [2004, January 21]. [46457]
90. McCulloch, Clay Y. 1973. Part I: Seasonal diets of mule and white-tailed deer. In: Deer nutrition in Arizona chaparral and desert habitats. Special Report No. 3: Project W-78-R. Phoenix, AZ: Arizona Game and Fish Department, Research Division: 1-37. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. [9894]
91. McKelvey, Susan Delano. 1938. Yuccas of the southwestern United States: Part one. Jamaica Plains, MA: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. 147 p. [3902]
92. McPherson, Guy R. 1995. The role of fire in the desert grasslands. In: McClaran, Mitchel P.; Van Devender, Thomas R., eds. The desert grassland. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press: 130-151. [26576]
93. Merkle, John. 1952. An analysis of a pinyon-juniper community at Grand Canyon, Arizona. Ecology. 33: 375-384. [1640]
94. Miles, Nancy Jo. 1980. Overwintering larvae associated with the stalks of Yucca baccata, Yucca elata, and Yucca torreyi in Dona Ana County, New Mexico. In: Ridaura-Sanz, V-E., ed. Yucca. Serie el Desierto: Volumen 3. Saltillo, Coahuli, Mexico: Centro de Investigacion en Quimica Aplicada: 83-90. [54649]
95. Miller, Richard F.; Rose, Jeffery A. 1995. Historic expansion of Juniperus occidentalis (western juniper) in southeastern Oregon. The Great Basin Naturalist. 55(1): 37-45. [26637]
96. Moir, William H. 1979. Soil-vegetation patterns in the central Peloncillo Mountains, New Mexico. The American Midland Naturalist. 102(2): 317-331. [4634]
97. Muller, Cornelius H. 1940. Plant succession in the Larrea-Flourensia climax. Ecology. 21: 206-212. [4244]
98. Munz, Philip A. 1974. A flora of southern California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1086 p. [4924]
99. Nealley, G. C. 1888. Report of an investigation of the forage plants of western Texas. Bulletin 6. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Botanical Division: 30-47. [5256]
100. Parish, S. B. 1930. Vegetation of the Mohave and Colorado Deserts of southern California. Ecology. 11(3): 481-499. [15095]
101. Pase, Charles P.; Brown, David E. 1982. Interior chaparral. In: Brown, David E., ed. Biotic communities of the American Southwest--United States and Mexico. Desert Plants. 4(1-4): 95-99. [1826]
102. Pase, Charles P.; Lindenmuth, A. W., Jr. 1971. Effects of prescribed fire on vegetation and sediment in oak-mountain mahogany chaparral. Journal of Forestry. 69: 800-805. [1829]
103. Paysen, Timothy E.; Ansley, R. James; Brown, James K.; [and others]. 2000. Fire in western shrubland, woodland, and grassland ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-volume 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 121-159. [36978]
104. Pellmyr, Olle. 1999. Systematic revision of the yucca moths in the Tegeticula yuccasella complex (Lepidoptera: Prodoxidae) north of Mexico. Systematic Entomology. 24: 243-271. [54569]
105. Pendleton, Rosemary L.; Pendleton, Burton K.; Harper, Kimball T. 1989. Breeding systems of woody plant species in Utah. In: Wallace, Arthur; McArthur, E. Durant; Haferkamp, Marshall R., compilers. Proceedings--symposium on shrub ecophysiology and biotechnology; 1987 June 30 - July 2; Logan, UT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-256. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 5-22. [5918]
106. Peters, Erin F.; Bunting, Stephen C. 1994. Fire conditions pre- and postoccurrence of annual grasses on the Snake River Plain. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Kitchen, Stanley G., compilers. Proceedings--ecology and management of annual rangelands; 1992 May 18-22; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-313. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 31-36. [24249]
107. Phillips, Arthur M., III. 1992. A new subspecies of Rosa stellata (Rosaceae) from northwestern Arizona. Madrono. 39(1): 31-35. [17714]
108. Pidgeon, A. M.; Radeloff, V. C.; Mathews, N. E. 2003. Landscape-scale patterns of black-throated sparrow (Amphispiza bilineata) abundance and nest success. Ecological Applications. 13(2): 530-542. [54641]
109. Potter-Basso, Gayle. 1991. Yucca baccata: from the beginning. Arid Lands Newsletter. 31: 24-29. [17349]
110. Powell, A. Michael. 1988. Trees & shrubs of Trans-Pecos Texas: Including Big Bend and Guadalupe Mountains National Parks. Big Bend National Park, TX: Big Bend Natural History Association. 536 p. [6130]
111. Powell, J. A. 2001. Longest insect dormancy: yucca moth larvae (Lepidoptera: Prodoxidae) metamorphose after 20, 25, and 30 years in diapause. Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 94(5): 677-680. [54573]
112. Rasmussen, D. Irvin. 1941. Biotic communities of Kaibab Plateau, Arizona. Ecological Monographs. 11(3): 229-275. [35763]
113. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
114. Rea, Amadeo M. 1991. Gila River Pima dietary reconstruction. Arid Lands Newsletter. 31: 3-10. [18255]
115. Reay, Frances; Reay, Brian. 1987. Survival of succulents after fire in South Australia. British Cactus and Succulent Journal. 5(1): 23-26. [22783]
116. Reid, William H.; Freeman, C. Edward; Echlin, R. Douglas. 1981. Soil and plant relationships in a Chihuahuan Desert Larrea-Agave community. The Southwestern Naturalist. 26(1): 85-88. [12235]
117. Sampson, Arthur W.; Jespersen, Beryl S. 1963. California range brushlands and browse plants. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences, California Agricultural Experiment Station, Extension Service. 162 p. [3240]
118. Schaack, Clark G. 1989. Additions to Arizona flora--range extensions of noxious weeds, plant distribution records established by ADOT/USFS and the location for Arizona Lewisia rediviva Pursh. Journal of the Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science. 23: 35-37. [11414]
119. Shields, Lora Mangum; Crispin, Joe. 1956. Vascular vegetation of a recent volcanic area in New Mexico. Ecology. 37(2): 341-351. [48580]
120. Shiflet, Thomas N., ed. 1994. Rangeland cover types of the United States. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management. 152 p. [23362]
121. Smith, Stanley Dean. 1975. The growth patterns, productivity, and phytosociology of soaptree yucca (Yucca elata Engelm.). Las Cruces, NM: New Mexico State University. 87 p. Thesis. [6243]
122. Stark, N. 1966. Review of highway planting information appropriate to Nevada. Bull. No. B-7. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, College of Agriculture, Desert Research Institute. 209 p. In cooperation with: Nevada State Highway Department. [47]
123. Steinhoff, Harold W. 1979. Management of Gambel oak associations for wildlife and livestock. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region. 119 p. [Preliminary edition]. [2232]
124. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. FEIS postfire regeneration workshop--April 12: Seral origin of species comprising secondary plant succession in Northern Rocky Mountain forests. 10 p. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [20090]
125. Terwilliger, Valery J.; Betancourt, Julio L.; Leavitt, Steven W.; Van de water, Peter K. 2002. Leaf cellulose delta D and delta18 O trends with elevation differ in direction among co-occurring, semiarid plant species. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 66(22): 3887-3900. [54574]
126. Thornber, J. J. 1910. The grazing ranges of Arizona. Bull. No. 65. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona, Agricultural Experiment Station. 360 p. [4555]
127. Tueller, Paul T. 1989. Vegetation and land use in Nevada. Rangelands. 11(5): 204-210. [9295]
128. Turner, Raymond M. 1982. Mohave desertscrub. In: Brown, David E., ed. Biotic communities of the American Southwest--United States and Mexico. Desert Plants. 4(1-4): 157-168. [2374]
129. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Tucson Plant Materials Center. 2001. Commercial sources of conservation plant materials, [Online]. Available: http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/azpmsarseedlist0501.pdf [2003, August 25]. [44989]
130. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2005. PLANTS database (2005), [Online]. Available: https://plants.usda.gov /. [34262]
131. Urness, P. J.; McCulloch, C. Y. 1973. Part III: Nutritional value of seasonal deer diets. In: Deer nutrition in Arizona chaparral and desert habitats. Special Report No. 3. Phoenix, AZ: Arizona Game and Fish Department, Research Division: 53-68. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. [12223]
132. Urness, Philip J. 1973. Part II: Chemical analyses and in vitro digestibility of seasonal deer forages. In: Deer nutrition in Arizona chaparral and desert habitats. Special Report No. 3. Phoenix, AZ: Arizona Game and Fish Department, Research Division 39-52. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. [93]
133. Utah Division of Wildlife Resources. 1998. Inventory of sensitive species and ecosystems in Utah. Endemic and rare plants of Utah: an overview of their distribution and status. Central Utah Project Completion Act: Title III, Section 306(b). Cooperative Agreement No. UC-95-0015: Section V.A.10.a. Salt Lake City, UT: Utah Reclamation, Mitigation and Conservation Commission. 566 p. (+ Appendices). [42066]
134. Van Devender, Thomas R.; Mead, Jim I.; Rea, Amadeo M. 1991. Late Quaternary plants and vertebrates from Picacho Peak, Arizona. The Southwestern Naturalist. 36(3): 302-314. [17089]
135. Van Devender, Thomas R.; Spaulding, W. Geoffrey; Phillips, Arthur M., III. 1979. Late Pleistocene plant communities in the Guadalupe Mountains, Culberson County, Texas. In: Genoways, Hugh H.; Baker, Robert J., eds. Biological investigations in the Guadalupe Mountains National Park: Proceedings of a symposium; 1975 April 4-5; Lubbock, TX. Proceedings and Transactions Series No. 4. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service: 13-30. [16014]
136. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 1104 p. [7707]
137. Wade, Dale D.; Brock, Brent L.; Brose, Patrick H.; [and others]. 2000. Fire in eastern ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 53-96. [36983]
138. Wallace, A.; Romney, E. M. 1972. Radioecology and ecophysiology of desert plants at the Nevada Test Site. Rep. TID-25954. [Washington, DC]: U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Office of Information Services. 439 p. [15000]
139. Wallen, Deborah R.; Ludwig, John A. 1978. Energy dynamics of vegetative and reproductive growth in Spanish bayonet (Yucca baccata Torr.). The Southwestern Naturalist. 23(3): 409-422. [5850]
140. Warren, Peter L.; Hoy, Marina S.; Hoy, Wilton E. 1992. Vegetation and flora of Fort Bowie National Historic Site, Arizona. Tech. Rep. NPS/WRUA/NRTR-92/43. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona, School of Renewable Natural Resources, Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit. 78 p. [19871]
141. Webb, Merrill. 1999. Occurrence of birds on a Great Basin-Mohave Desert ecotone in southwestern Utah. In: McArthur, E. Durant; Ostler, W. Kent; Wambolt, Carl L., compilers. Proceedings: shrubland ecotones; 1998 August 12-14; Ephraim, UT. Proceedings RMRS-P-11. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 35-39. [36059]
142. Webber, John Milton. 1953. Yuccas of the Southwest. Agriculture Monograph No. 17. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 97 p. [2474]
143. Weber, William A. 1987. Colorado flora: western slope. Boulder, CO: Colorado Associated University Press. 530 p. [7706]
144. Weber, William A.; Wittmann, Ronald C. 1996. Colorado flora: eastern slope. 2nd ed. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado. 524 p. [27572]
145. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]
146. Whisenant, Steven G. 1990. Postfire population dynamics of Bromus japonicus. The American Midland Naturalist. 123: 301-308. [11150]
147. Whitfield, Charles J.; Beutner, Edward L. 1938. Natural vegetation in the desert plains grassland. Ecology. 19(1): 26-37. [5251]
148. Wright, Henry A.; Bailey, Arthur W. 1982. Fire ecology: United States and southern Canada. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 501 p. [2620]
149. Yale, John W., Jr. 1980. Anti-stress action of Yucca extracts. In: Ridaura-Sanz, V-E., ed. Yucca. Serie el Desierto: Volumen 3. Saltillo, Coahuli, Mexico: Centro de Investigacion en Quimica Aplicada: 229-241. [54648]
150. Yeaton, R. I.; Yeaton, R. W.; Waggoner, J. P., III; Horenstein, J. E. 1985. The ecology of yucca (Agavaceae) over an environmental gradient in the Mohave Desert: distribution and interspecific interactions. Journal of Arid Environments. 8: 33-44. [281]