Index of Species Information
SPECIES: Chamaecyparis thyoides
Introductory
SPECIES: Chamaecyparis thyoides
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Chamaecyparis thyoides. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/chathy/all.html [].
ABBREVIATION :
CHATHY
SYNONYMS :
Cupressus thyoides L.
Chamaecyparis henryae Li
Chamaecyparis thyoides var. henryae (Li) Little
SCS PLANT CODE :
CHTH2
COMMON NAMES :
Atlantic white-cedar
southern white-cedar
white-cedar
swamp-cedar
false-cedar
juniper
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of Atlantic white-cedar is
Chamaecyparis thyoides (L.) B.S.P. [18]. It is a member of the cypress
family (Cupressaceae) [25].
In some taxonomic treatments, two primarily geographic varieties of
Atlantic white-cedar have been delineated (var. henryae and var.
thyoides) [16,25]. However, most current taxonomic treatments no longer
recognize these varieties [18,25]. The existence of climatic races is
possible, although they have not yet been defined [16].
LIFE FORM :
Tree
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
See OTHER STATUS
OTHER STATUS :
Atlantic white-cedar is listed as a rare plant in Virginia where timber
harvest has reduced its numbers [7]. It may also serve as a "habitat
indicator" for several other rare plants [7]. In parts of Florida, many
rare or endemic plants are associated with Atlantic white-cedar stands
[47].
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Chamaecyparis thyoides
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Atlantic white-cedar grows in a narrow belt along the Atlantic and Gulf
coasts from southern Maine to northern Florida westward to southern
Mississippi [23,25]. It occurs no farther than 50 to 130 miles (80-210
km) inland [25]. Vast stands occur in the Great Dismal Swamp of
Virginia and eastern North Carolina. Small isolated stands are more
typical in much of New Jersey, Georgia, and eastern Florida, but stands
are infrequent in Delaware and Maryland. The species is uncommon in
South Carolina but becomes more frequent in the Florida Panhandle and in
southern Alabama [46]. At the western edge of its range in southern
Mississippi, Atlantic white-cedar grow in scattered relict stands [46].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES16 Oak - gum - cypress
STATES :
AL CT DE FL GA LA ME MD MA MS
NH NJ NY NC RI SC VA
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
NO-ENTRY
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K113 Southern floodplain forest
K114 Pocosin
SAF COVER TYPES :
45 Pitch pine
85 Slash pine - hardwood
97 Atlantic white-cedar
101 Baldcypress
102 Baldcypress - tupelo
103 Water tupelo - swamp tupelo
104 Sweetbay - swamp tupelo - redbay
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Atlantic white-cedar grows as an overstory dominant in peaty swamps. It
is listed as a dominant or indicator in the following community type
(cts) classifications:
Area Classification Authority
VA general veg. cts Montague & Day 1980
southern U.S. swamp veg. cts Penfound 1952
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Chamaecyparis thyoides
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
The light brown, straight-grained wood of Atlantic white-cedar is
lightweight, buoyant, and easily worked [25,37,46]. It is fragrant,
repels insects, and is resistant to decay [41,46]. Atlantic white-cedar
has been logged heavily since the Revolutionary War [19,24] for fuels,
ship-building, shingles, milled lumber, charcoal, household items,
barrels, pails, tubs, water tanks, and duck decoys [25,46].
The wood of Atlantic white-cedar is currently used for telephone poles,
posts, pilings, ties, siding, boat railing, decking, lawn furniture,
paneling, and ice cream buckets [16,46].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Browse: Atlantic white-cedar is a preferred deer browse in many areas
[26]. In lowland sites of New Jersey, deer often browse plants during
the winter [26]. Seedlings are especially favored [25] and may be
killed by intense deer use [26]. Meadow mice occasionally browse the
stems and often girdle seedlings [25]. Trees serve as territorial
marking posts for black bears in parts of the South [47].
PALATABILITY :
Atlantic white-cedar browse is highly palatable to white-tailed deer
[26]. Fruit is evidentally low in palatability for most birds and
rodents [45].
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
COVER VALUE :
Atlantic white-cedar provides cover for a variety of birds and mammals.
The yellow-throated warbler, prairie warbler, and hooded warbler nest
close to the ground in Atlantic white-cedar stands [42]. Cavities
provide nesting areas for the pileated woodpecker [42].
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Atlantic white-cedar has potential value for rehabilitating certain
disturbed wetland habitats. It has been planted at Tennessee Valley
Authority impoundments along shorelines within the fluctuation zone
[1].
Atlantic white-cedar can be propagated from seed. Cleaned seed averages
460,000 per pound (1,014,000/kg) [25]. Atlantic white-cedar can also be
propagated from cuttings [16].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Atlantic white-cedar is attractive and hardy and is often planted as an
ornamental [9]. More than 19 cultivars are now available [16,33].
Atlantic white-cedar is used locally as a Christmas tree in parts of the
South [46].
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Timber harvest: Wetland drainage and heavy cutting has greatly reduced
Atlantic white-cedar, and in many areas harvested stands have been
maintained in an immature and degraded condition [24,25,46]. Harvesting
on a commercial scale is now generally limited to parts of North
Carolina [41].
Silviculture: Atlantic white-cedar often reestablishes in dense stands
after clearcutting [19]. Following clearcutting in the Great Dismal
Swamp, seed stored in the upper 1 inch (2.5 cm) of peat germinated at a
rate of more than 3,574,840 per acre (8,640,000/ha) [19]. The following
guidelines have been recommended for harvested Atlantic white-cedar
sites: (1) remove most of the slash, (2) allow periodic fires, (3)
control deer browsing if necessary, and (4) prevent the establishment of
competing vegetation [41,48].
Damage/disease: Atlantic white-cedar is resistant to disease and decay,
and has few insect pests [25]. It is susceptible to windthrow and
storm-caused breakage [25].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Chamaecyparis thyoides
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Atlantic white-cedar is a small to medium-sized, columnar evergreen tree
which commonly reaches 40 to 60 feet (12-18 m) in height and 36 inches
(1 m) d.b.h. [16,25,40,45]. Individuals may occasionally reach 120 feet
(37 m) in height and 60 inches (152 cm) in diameter [25]. Plants are
long-lived and can reach 1,000 years of age. However, stands rarely
survive more than 200 years [25].
The fibrous bark is narrowly fissured by long, flat, platelike ridges
[15,37]. Scalelike leaves are opposite and average 0.06 to 0.13 inch
(1.5-3.3 mm) in length [8,36]. Atlantic white-cedar is shallow-rooted
[25]. On many swampy sites, roots are confined to the top 1 to 2 feet
(0.3-0.6 m) of peat, but on sites with lower water levels, roots may
extend considerably deeper [25].
Atlantic white-cedar is monoecious, with staminate and pistillate cones
occurring on separate shoots [25]. Small, inconspicuous yellow or
reddish staminate flowers are borne singly at the tips of short
branchlets [15,16]. Each cone contains 5 to 15 small, rounded,
laterally winged seeds [15,25].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Undisturbed State: Phanerophyte (mesophanerophyte)
Burned or Clipped State: Therophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Seed: Atlantic white-cedar reproduces solely through an abundance of
light, winged seed [14,25]. In open stands, trees first produce seed at
3 to 5 years of age and often bear large crops from 4 years of age and
up [16,45]. In dense stands, seed production may not begin until plants
reach 10 to 20 years of age [25]. As many as 9,000,000 seeds per acre
(22 million seeds/ha) may be produced annually [25].
Seed banking: Seed can remain viable for at least 1 to 2 years when
stored in the upper inch (2.5 cm) of peat [16,19]. Little and Garrett
[25] reported the presence of 260,000 to 1,100,000 viable seeds per acre
(642,000-2,718,000/ha) within the top inch (2.5 cm) of soil.
Germination: Germination of Atlantic white-cedar is often low due to
poor viability and embryo dormancy [16,25]. Stratification at 38 to 40
degrees F (3-4 degrees C) for 90 days may promote germination [2,25].
Delayed germination is common, and in laboratory tests up to 50 percent
of germination was delayed until the second year [16]. Results of
specific germination tests were as follows [16]:
stratification -days germ. test germ. capacity
warm cold day night days percent
0 0 86 F 68 F 60 ----
0 90 86 F 68 F 28 84
Seedling establishment: Open peat and adequate moisture are required
for good seedling establishment [25,34]. Rotting wood, sphagnum moss,
and muck or peat serve as favorable seedbeds [25]. Thick litter and
dense slash can inhibit germination and subsequent establishment [25].
Adequate light is essential for good initial growth. Seedlings are
vulnerable to drought and flooding and often survive only on favorable
microsites [25].
Vegetative regeneration: Heavy browsing and other types of injury can
cause plants to layer [25]. As many as 15 stems may form from the same
root system as shoots develop from lateral branches or dormant stem buds
[25,26].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Atlantic white-cedar grows in bogs or swamps bordering mesotrophic
stagnant water, in swamp forests, bayheads, along stream channels,
behind stable dunes, and in moist depressions in pine flatwoods
[5,6,8,17,47]. In New England, it is often associated with glacial
kettles and outwash plains [41]. Atlantic white-cedar grows in sun but
is also somewhat shade tolerant [9,45]. It is able to persist despite
periodic flooding [1]. Plants can grow where standing water levels
reach 1 to 2 feet (0.3-0.6 m) during parts of the year and where sites
become partially desiccated during summer [34]. Atlantic white-cedar
occurs in pure and mixed stands [36].
In addition to those species listed under DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE,
common overstory associates include eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis),
larch (Larix laricina), black spruce (Picea mariana), black gum (Nyssa
sylvatica), gray birch (Betula populifolia), and red maple (Acer rubrum)
in the northern portion of Atlantic white-cedar's range [19,21,32];
eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), yellow birch (Betula
alleghaniensis), and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) in some areas
[25]; and pond pine (Pinus serotina), red maple, sweetbay magnolia
(Magnolia virginiana), and white bay (Magnolia glauca) in Virginia and
North Carolina [12,19,22]. Farther south, Atlantic white-cedar grows
with loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus), titi (Cliftonia monophylla),
water gum, and white bay [12,19].
Understory associates: Atlantic white-cedar stands are often
characterized by a dense, tangled, nearly impenetrable undergrowth [19].
Sweet pepperbush (Clethra alnifolia), swamp azalea (Rhododendron
viscosum), great rhododendron (Rhododendron maximum), highbush blueberry
(Vaccinium corymbosum), dangleberry (Gaylussacia frondosa), and
sweetbells leucothoe (Leucothoe racemosa) are common associates in the
northern portion of its range. Fetterbush lyonia (Lyonia lucida),
sweetbells leucothoe, highbush blueberry, pieris (Pieris nitida),
greenbrier (Smilax laurifolia), coast pepperbush (Cletha alnifolia),
redbay (Persea borbona), palmetto (Sabal palmetto), and sweet pepperbush
grow with Atlantic white-cedar in the South [4,25,49]. Lyonia (Lyonia
spp.), mountainlaurel (Kalmia spp.), titi (Cyrilla racemiflora), and
sweet pepperbush are common associates in shrub bogs [5].
Climate: Atlantic white-cedar grows under a warm, humid temperate to
subtropical climatic regime [5,25]. Annual precipitation averages 40 to
64 inches (102-163 cm) and temperatures range from winter lows of -36
degrees F (-38 degrees C) in Maine to 100 degrees F (38 degrees C)
during the summer in much of its range. Growing season ranges from 140
to more than 350 days [5,25].
Soils: Atlantic white-cedar is adapted to highly acidic soils that are
low in nutrients [41]. It typically grows on muck or peat but also
occurs on some sandy soils [25]. It is rare or absent where peat
contains significant amounts of silt or clay or where peat is underlain
by clay [25]. Atlantic white-cedar reportedly thrives on water-logged
organic soils [41]. Soils are generally acidic, with pH ranging from
3.5 to 5.5 [22].
Elevation: Atlantic white-cedar typically grows at low elevations along
the coast. Through most of the Northeast, it grows from sea level to
160 feet (50 m) [21] but can grow at elevations up to 1,500 feet (457 m)
in northern New Jersey [25].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Atlantic white-cedar is long-lived but is often considered a subclimax
species [10]. Paradoxically, although some form of disturbance is
generally necessary for establishment, disturbance can lead to
conversion to hardwood types [39]. Even-aged stands of Atlantic
white-cedar often develop in response to fire, flooding, clearcutting,
or windthrow [10]. This tree is described as "intermediate in tolerance
to shade" and is unable to grow through dense shrub thickets or a
hardwood overstory [25]. In many areas, Atlantic white-cedar forests
are successional to evergreen bay forests when fire is excluded [4,5].
In the Great Dismal Swamp of Virginia and North Carolina, stands are
often replaced by red maple and black gum [30]; elsewhere in the South,
Atlantic white-cedar forests are replaced by climax stands of swamp red
bay (Tamala pubescens), white bay, and titi [34] or by sweetbay
magnolia, holly (Ilex myrtifolia), titi, and red bay (Persea pubescens)
in the absence of fire [4].
Once eliminated from a stand, Atlantic white-cedar will not regain
prominence until fire or other disturbance removes competing hardwoods
and creates a favorable seedbed. Plants reestablish by wind-dispersed
seed when buried seed reserves have been depleted and reestablishment is
often very slow. In some coastal areas, storm-borne saltwater can kill
hardwoods and allow Atlantic white-cedar to form nearly pure stands from
seed stored in the soil [25].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Pollen is generally shed in March or April [37]. Cones mature at the
end of the first growing season [16]. Most seeds are shed during
October or November, but seeds continue to be shed throughout the winter
and into the early spring [16,37]. Citing the results of a single
study, Little and Garrett [25] reported that 39 percent of all seeds had
fallen by November 15, 60 percent had fallen by December 15, and 93
percent had been shed by March 1. Generalized flowering and fruiting
dates by geographic location are as follows:
Location Flowering Fruit ripe Authority
New England ---- July Seymour 1985 [40]
NJ March Sept.-Oct. Harris 1974 [16]
se U.S. March-April ---- Duncan & Duncan 1988 [9]
s NJ April ---- Little & Garrett 1991 [25]
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Chamaecyparis thyoides
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Adult white-cedar trees are readily killed by fire, but successful
seedling establishment is largely dependent on fires of moderate
severity at relatively short intervals [43]. Seeds stored in the peaty
soils often germinate in abundance after fire if the upper peat layers
are not destroyed [4]. Atlantic white-cedar swamp forests in the
Southeast are typically produced by a low-frequency, moderate-severity
fire regime related to "marginally moist soil conditions" [5]. In many
areas, increased fire suppression has led to the decline of Atlantic
white-cedar by promoting the growth of competing hardwoods such as red
maple, white bay, and black gum [11].
Changes in natural fire cycles have contributed to the decline of
Atlantic white-cedar in some areas. In many southeastern swamps, water
tables have been lowered for silvicultural and agricultural purposes,
which has increased the likelihood of dry season fires [5]. Hardwood
forests of red maple, black gum, or water gum are often favored by
severe, dry season fires [4,19,34]. Atlantic white-cedar may persist
only on small hummocks of peat, near stumps, on moss-covered logs and on
rotten wood located above the general water level [19]. In North
Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia, moderate fires which occur
during the dry season, or within a few years of a previous fire, often
generate stands of pond pine [12,19]. Farther south, moderate or
frequent fires often produce stands of slash pine [19,34]. As fire
frequencies increase, Atlantic white-cedar declines and stands may be
replaced by shrub bogs as the fire-sensitive plants are killed and the
seed banks depleted [5]. In the North, frequent fire tends to favor the
development of uniform stands of Atlantic white-cedar, but in the South,
mixed forests of white-cedar and hardwoods often develop [47].
In Florida and the Gulf Coast, wet seepage slopes burn infrequently
[47]. Swamps in which Atlantic white-cedar occurs as a dominant
generally only burn after long droughts which increase the flammability
of peat [11,35]. At other times, these swampy areas serve as natural
fire breaks. Fires rarely begin in swampy Atlantic white-cedar stands.
Fire is particularly important in the establishment and persistence of
Atlantic white-cedar forests. Atlantic white-cedar is often capable of
colonizing moist open sites, and wet season fires which occur after
relatively long fire-free intervals tend to produce pure cedar stands
[12].
FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
ground-stored residual colonizer; fire-activated seed on-site in soil
off-site colonizer; seed carried by animals or water; postfire yr 1&2
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Chamaecyparis thyoides
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Atlantic white-cedar is readily killed or damaged by fire [5,45], often
by even low-intensity fires [5]. Crown fires will generally kill the
trees [25,35] and can eliminate an entire stand [12,26]. Large trees
not killed outright usually die gradually, beginning at the top [35].
Mature trees may occasionally survive low-intensity fires on wet sites
in parts of the South [47]. On these sites, crown fires do not occur
"even under the impetus of strong winds and fires that have crowned in
adjacent associations" [47]. Seedlings, however, are readily killed by
these low-intensity fires [47].
Wet swampy stands dominated by Atlantic white-cedar often serve as
natural fire breaks, but trees at the edge are usually commonly killed
before the fire is stopped [24,35]. Korstian [19] observed that in a
portion of the Great Dismal Swamp, all Atlantic white-cedars were killed
by a fire which occurred when the swamp was "full of water." However,
dry-season burns are typically most damaging to young growth and buried
seeds [19]. Dry season burns often remove the upper layer of peat and
can eliminate all on-site seed [12,39].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Atlantic white-cedar readily establishes on burned sites through seed
stored on-site in peat or transported from adjacent stands [5,24].
Germination is generally favored when surface peat is too wet to burn
[34]. Seeds often germinate in abundance and dense stands commonly
develop after a single fire [5,12,19]. Little and others [50] reported
the presence of 111,520 seedlings per acre (45,109/ha) 1 year after
fire, with numbers declining to 11,360 per acre (4,599/ha) by the second
year.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Prescribed fire: Prescribed fire can be used to stimulate the
regeneration of Atlantic white-cedar and increase deer browse [28].
Slash fires can enhance germination of Atlantic white-cedar by clearing
the forest floor [19]. Competing hardwoods can also be reduced or
eliminated if peat is heated enough to kill underground regenerative
structures [11,19].
Fuels/flammability: Logging slash left in Atlantic white-cedar types is
highly flammable and sites often "burn to the waters edge" [19].
Wildlife: Deer can seriously damage or kill postfire regeneration [26].
Lightning: Ward and Clewell [47] reported that in mixed
hardwood-Atlantic white-cedar forests of the Gulf Region, lightning is
apparently the primary natural factor determining the upper age and size
limit of Atlantic white-cedar.
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Chamaecyparis thyoides
REFERENCES :
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