Index of Species Information
SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
Introductory
SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Cope, Amy B. 1993. Pinus coulteri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/pincou/all.html [].
ABBREVIATION :
PINCOU
SYNONYMS :
NO-ENTRY
SCS PLANT CODE :
PICO3
COMMON NAMES :
Coulter pine
California Coulter pine
big-cone pine
nut pine
pitch pine
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name of Coulter pine is Pinus coulteri
D. Don [10,35]. There are no recognized subspecies or varieties.
Coulter pine hybridizes with Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi) [8,10,31,35].
LIFE FORM :
Tree
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Coulter pine occurs from Contra Costa County, California, south through
the Coastal, Transverse, and Peninsular ranges to the Mexican border
[10,34,35,39,41,55]. It is cultivated in Hawaii [58].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES23 Fir - spruce
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub
FRES27 Redwood
STATES :
CA HI
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
3 Southern Pacific Border
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K006 Redwood forest
K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
K029 California mixed evergreen forest
K030 California oakwoods
K033 Chaparral
K034 Montane chaparral
SAF COVER TYPES :
211 White fir
232 Redwood
234 Douglas-fir - tanoak - Pacific madrone
246 California black oak
247 Jeffrey pine
248 Knobcone pine
249 Canyon live oak
250 Blue oak - gray pine
255 California coast live oak
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Coulter pine occurs in a variety of plant associations, but seldom forms
extensive pure stands [18]. Where they do occur, communities dominated
by Coulter pine intergrade with chaparral and lower montane coniferous
forest [5,24,27,47]. Coulter pine is named as a dominant species in the
following published classifications:
Terrestrial natural communities of California [22]
Vegetation types of the San Bernadino Mountains [25]
Vegetation of the San Bernadino Mountains [37]
A vegetation classification system applied to southern California [42]
Mixed evergreen forest [45]
Vascular plant communities of California [47]
Montane and subalpine forests of the Transverse and Peninsular ranges [48]
An introduction to the plant communities of the Santa Ana and San
Jacinto Mountains [52]
Associated trees not mentioned in Distribution and Occurrence include
sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana), bristlecone fir (Abies bracteata),
incense-cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), Sargent cypress (Cupressus
sargentii), black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), California bay
(Umbellularia californica), bigcone Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga
macrocarpa), Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii), and birchleaf
mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus betuloides var. betuloides)
[4,7,22,24,47,48,55]. Understory associates include chamise (Adenostoma
fasciculatum), Eastwood manzanita (Arctostaphylos glandulosa), Pringle
manzanita (A. pringlei), pointleaf manzanita (A. pugens), deerbrush
(Ceanothus integerrimus), annual hairgrass (Deschampsia danthonioides),
rareflower heterocodon (Heterocodon rariflorum), golden violet (Viola
douglasii), and annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) [4,19,37,48,52].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
Coulter pine wood is rarely used except as fuelwood and second-grade
lumber [26,41,50]. It is light, weak, coarse-grained, and brittle [41].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Females of the southern race of white-headed woodpeckers forage for
insects almost exclusively on lower main trunks of Coulter pine, while
male white-headed woodpeckers extensively use the cones [33]. The seeds
are also a dependable year-round food source for western gray squirrels
[7]. Black-tailed deer rarely browse even young trees [23].
PALATABILITY :
NO-ENTRY
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
COVER VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
NO-ENTRY
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Coulter pine is used as an ornamental [23]. The cones are used for
decoration and crafts [26].
Coulter pine seeds were eaten by Native Americans [13,15,29,41].
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Coulter pine distribution has apparently decreased in recent years.
This may be due to past policies of fire suppression [55]. See the Fire
Effects frame for a discussion on this problem.
Annual grasses deplete moisture from the top layer of soil, which
decreases survival of young Coulter pine [12,23]. Mature Coulter pine,
however, are drought tolerant [23].
Coulter pine cone processing and tree planting methods are discussed in
the literature [23,31]. A discussion of damaging agents can also be
found in the literature [1,7,21,28].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Coulter pine is a native evergreen conifer that lives up to 100 years of
age [23]. It attains a height of 30 to 83 feet (9-25 m) and a d.b.h.
of 12 to 31 inches (30-80 cm) [23,29,31,41]. The bark is thick and
roughly furrowed at maturity [29,36,38]. The crown is pyramidal and may
be dense or open, depending upon the site [23,38,41]. Needles occur in
groups of three and are 6 to 12 inches (15-30 cm) long [29,41,50]. The
massive, spiny cones are 9 to 15 inches (24-40 cm) long, occurring in
whorls of four [29,41]. Young trees first bear cones on the trunk. As
trees mature, cones are also borne on strong branches [7].
Although geographically isolated, nine Coulter pine populations were
very similar in all of three morphological characteristics studies.
Oleoresins (volatile portion) were also similar [55].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Coulter pine first bears cones at 10 to 15 years of age [7,31,38]. The
interval between good seed crops is 3 to 6 years [31]. Cones may
persist up to 5 or 6 years [31,41]. Seed dispersal is limited due to
the large size of seed. Seed viability is generally high. Seedling
establishment is best on mineral soil in full sun. Early growth is
rapid [7,23,31,38]. (See the Fire Ecology frame for a discussion of the
role of fire in Coulter pine regeneration.)
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Coulter pine occurs in a mediterranean climate. Winter rains are
infrequent, and the summer is dry with occasional summer thunderstorms
[37,40,52].
Coulter pine is most frequent on steep south-facing slopes and ridges
[4,22,52]. Soils may be poor to fertile, and are typically dry.
Coulter pine is an indicator of serpentine soils, but also occurs on a
variety of other substrates. Soils range from loamy to gravelly or
rocky in texture [22,29,30]. Coulter pine occurs between 500 to 7,000
feet (150-2,120 m) elevation [47,55].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Coulter pine occurs in both initial communities and later seres. Stands
are often even-aged, establishing after fire [7,18,39]. Mature Coulter
pine is shade intolerant [2], but seedlings can grow in partial shade
[7,23].
At higher elevations of the Coast Ranges, Coulter pine sometimes
replaces blue oak (Quercus douglasii) [3].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Coulter pine cones open for pollination in May and June [31,41,50].
Cones ripen in August and September of the second year following
pollination [29,31,50]. Mature cones may open at or soon after
maturity, slowly over a several-year period, or only after fire,
depending upon ecotype. Cones of nonserotinous ecotypes open and
disperse seed from October through November [7,31,37].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Coulter pine displays ecotypical variation in degree of cone serotiny.
Serotiny is prevalent in Coulter pine/chaparral, Coulter pine-canyon
live oak, and Coulter pine/Sargent cypress communities. Cones of
Coulter pine in these communities typically do not open until heated by
fire. Consequently, the bulk of Coulter pine regeneration in these
communities occurs after fire. Coulter pine ecotypes associated with
coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia), however, typically bear cones that
open at maturity or shortly thereafter [7].
Coulter pine seedling development is best in mineral soil in open areas
[38]. Such conditions are created by fire.
FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Tree without adventitious-bud root crown
Crown residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Large Coulter pine are resistant to all but severe surface fires.
Younger trees are apparently killed by moderate-severity surface or
crown fires [23,54]. No data are available concerning the effect of
crown fire on large-diameter Coulter pine.
A "hot" surface fire on Mt. Diablo killed nearly all Coulter pine,
including large trees. In an area of the mountain where fire was less
severe, however, 9 of 52 Coulter pine survived. Of these trees, all of
those greater than 16 inches (40 cm) in d.b.h. survived, and only one
tree less than 16 inches in d.b.h. survived. Surviving trees had needle
scorch only on lower branches [54].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Coulter pine readily establishes from seed on burned sites [52].
Persisting cones on surviving trees, and sometimes on those killed by
fire, provide a source of seed [38,52]. Seedling establishment is
usually greatest during the first postfire year [7]. The severe Marble
Cone Fire in the Santa Lucia Mountains destroyed Coulter pine stands.
At postfire year 1, a large number of Coulter pine seeds germinated.
Three seasons following the fire, Coulter pine seedling density ranged
from 18 to 4,213 per acre (7-1,685/ha). The lower seedling densities
probably resulted from interference by annual ryegrass [19].
Vale [54] found that pine seedling density was much greater after the
Mt. Diablo fire than before it (newly-germinated pines could not be
identified by species). Pine seedling numbers were greatest in areas
where fire was less intense. In these areas, relative frequency of pine
seedlings was 100 percent; density was 2 seedlings per square meter. In
areas where fire was severe, relative frequency was only 56 percent, and
density was one seedling per square meter. Vale suggested that the
intense heat in the heavily burned areas may have destroyed seeds within
the cones of trees, but the less intense heat in the more lightly burned
areas may have opened cones without destroying seeds. Pine seedlings
were disproportionately located on areas where mineral soil was exposed.
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Intense fire may be responsible for reducing the distribution of Coulter
pine [52,57]. Fire intensity in chaparral, woodland, and forest
vegetation is probably greater since initiation of fire suppression
[56], and intense fire reduces Coulter pine populations. Frequent,
moderate-severity surface fires, however, would probably benefit this
species. The differential survival of large trees in less intensely
burned areas and enhanced reproduction on exposed mineral soil in such
areas both suggest that most Coulter pine evolved under a regime of
frequent, light- to moderate-severity surface fires [54]. Managers
should keep in mind, however, that Coulter pine in Coulter pine-coast
live oak communities may be harmed by fire [7].
Prescribed burning has been used in Coulter pine/manzanita stands to
reduce fuel loading [11,51]. Severe fires or fires at too-frequent
intervals, however, convert such communities to mixed stands of
manzanita and ceanothus [52,55].
Frequent fire selects for Coulter pine over bigcone Douglas-fir in
canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis) communities [38].
Under long fire return intervals, Coulter pine invades oak savanna
[17,22,45].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Pinus coulteri
REFERENCES :
1. Amman, Gene D.; Cole, Walter E. 1983. Mountain pine beetle dynamics in
lodgepole pine forests. Part II. Population dynamics. Gen. Tech. Rep.
INT-145. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 59 p. [8315]
2. Baker, Frederick S. 1949. A revised tolerance table. Journal of
Forestry. 47: 179-181. [20404]
3. Barbour, Michael G. 1987. Community ecology and distribution of
California hardwood forests and woodlands. In: Plumb, Timothy R.;
Pillsbury, Norman H., technical coordinators. Proceedings of the
symposium on multiple-use management of California's hardwood resources;
1986 November 12-14; San Luis Obispo, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-100.
Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 18-25. [5356]
4. Barbour, Michael G. 1988. Californian upland forests and woodlands. In:
Barbour, Michael G.; Billings, William Dwight, eds. North American
terrestrial vegetation. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press:
131-164. [13880]
5. Bentley, Jay R. 1967. Conversion of chaparral areas to grassland:
techniques used in California. Agric. Handb. 328. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 35 p. [195]
6. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals,
reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's
associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO:
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p.
[434]
7. Borchert, Mark. 1985. Serotiny and cone-habit variation in populations
of Pinus coulteri (Pinaceae) in the southern Coast Ranges of California.
Madrono. 32(1): 29-48. [5997]
8. Conkle, M. Thompson; Critchfield, William B. 1988. Genetic variation and
hybridization of ponderosa pine. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Lotan, James
E., compilers. Ponderosa pine: The species and its management: Symposium
proceedings; 1987 September 29 - October 1; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA:
Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 27-43. [9399]
9. Conard, S. G.; Regelbrugge, J. C.; Wills, R. D. 1991. Preliminary
effects of ryegrass seeding on postfire establishment of natural
vegetation in two California ecosystems. In: Andrews, Patricia L.;
Potts, Donald F., eds. Proceedings, 11th annual conference on fire and
forest meteorology; 1991 April 16-19; Missoula, MT. SAF Publication
91-04. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 314-321. [16180]
10. Critchfield, William B.; Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1966. Geographic
distribution of the pines of the world. Misc. Publ. 991. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 97 p. [20314]
11. Dougherty, Ron; Riggan, Philip J. 1982. Operational use of prescribed
fire in southern California chaparral. In: Conrad, C. Eugene; Oechel,
Walter C., technical coordinators. Proceedings of the symposium on
dynamics and management of Mediterranean-type ecosystems; 1981 June
22-26; San Diego, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-58. Berkeley, CA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and
Range Experiment Station: 502-510. [6055]
12. Dunn, Paul H.; Barro, Susan C.; Wells, Wade G., II; [and others]. 1988.
The San Dimas Experimental Forest: 50 years of research. Gen. Tech. Rep.
PSW-104. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 49 p. [8400]
13. Elias, Thomas S.; Dykeman, Peter A. 1982. Field guide to North American
edible wild plants. New York: Outdoor Life Books. 286 p. [21104]
14. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
15. Fisher, James T.; Mexal, John G.; Phillips, Gregory C. 1988. High value
crops from New Mexico pinyon pines. I. Crop improvement through woodland
stand management. In: Fisher, James T.; Mexal, John G.; Pieper, Rex D.,
technical coordinators. Pinyon-juniper woodlands of New Mexico: a
biological and economic appraisal. Special Report 73. Las Cruces, NM:
New Mexico State University, College of Agriculture and Home Economics:
13-23. [5259]
16. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range
ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
17. Griffin, James R. 1977. Oak woodland. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Malor,
Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley
and Sons: 383-415. [7217]
18. Griffin, James R. 1978. The Marble-Cone fire ten months later.
Fremontia. 6: 8-14. [19081]
19. Griffin, James R. 1982. Pine seedlings, native ground cover, and Lolium
multiflorum on the Marble-Cone burn, Santa Lucia Range, California.
Madrono. 29(3): 177-188. [4935]
20. Gutierrez, R. J.; Koenig, Walter D. 1978. Characteristics of storage
trees used by acorn woodpeckers in two California woodlands. Journal of
Forestry. 76(3): 162-164. [20555]
21. Hempel, Kirsten. 1988. Dwarf mistletoe laying siege to pines. Forestry
Research West. [Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service]; November: 1-6. [16091]
22. Holland, Robert F. 1986. Preliminary descriptions of the terrestrial
natural communities of California. Sacramento, CA: California Department
of Fish and Game. 156 p. [12756]
23. Horton, Jerome S. 1949. Trees and shrubs for erosion control of southern
California mountains. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, California [Pacific Southwest] Forest and Range
Experiment Station; California Department of Natural Resources, Division
of Forestry. 72 p. [10689]
24. Horton, J. S. 1951. Vegetation. In: Some aspects of watershed management
in southern California vegetation. Misc. Paper 1. Berkeley, CA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, California [Pacific
Southwest] Forest and Range Experiment Station: 10-17. [10685]
25. Horton, Jerome S. 1960. Vegetation types of the San Bernardino
Mountains. Tech. Rep. PSW-44. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station. 29 p. [10687]
26. Huber, Dean W. 1992. Utilization of hardwoods, fuelwood, and special
forest products in California, Arizona, and New Mexico. In: Ffolliott,
Peter F.; Gottfried, Gerald J.; Bennett, Duane A.; [and others],
technical coordinators. Ecology and management of oak and associated
woodlands: perspectives in the sw United States & n Mexico: Proceedings;
1992 April 27-30; Sierra Vista, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-218. Fort
Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 103-108. [19748]
27. Keeley, Jon E.; Keeley, Sterling C. 1988. Chaparral. In: Barbour,
Michael G.; Billings, William Dwight, eds. North American terrestrial
vegetation. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press: 165-207.
[19545]
28. Kimmey, J. W. 1957. Dwarfmistletoes of California and their control.
Tech. Pap. No. 19. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, California Forest and Range Experiment Station. 12 p. [16464]
29. Krochmal, Arnold; Krochmal, Connie. 1982. Uncultivated nuts of the
United States. Agriculture Information Bulletin 450. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 89 p. [1377]
30. Kruckeberg, Arthur R. 1984. California serpentines: flora, vegetation,
geology, soils and management problems. Publications in Botany Volume
48. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 180 p. [12482]
31. Krugman, Stanley L.; Jenkinson, James L. 1974. Pinaceae--pine family.
In: Schopmeyer, C. S., technical coordinator. Seeds of woody plants in
the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service: 598-637. [1380]
32. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
33. Ligon, J. David. 1973. Foraging behavior of the white-headed woodpecker
in Idaho. Auk. 90(4): 862-869. [8076]
34. Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1975. Rare and local conifers in the United
States. Conservation Research Rep. No. 19. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 25 p. [15691]
35. Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native
and naturalized). Agric. Handb. 541. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. 375 p. [2952]
36. McCune, Bruce. 1988. Ecological diversity in North American pines.
American Journal of Botany. 75(3): 353-368. [5651]
37. Minnich, Richard A. 1976. Vegetation of the San Bernardino Mountains.
In: Latting, June, ed. Symposium proceedings: plant communities of
southern California; 1974 May 4; Fullerton, CA. Special Publication No.
2. Berkeley, CA: California Native Plant Society: 99-124. [4232]
38. Minnich, Richard A. 1980. Wildfire and the geographic relationships
between canyon live oak, Coulter pine, and bigcone Douglas-fir forests.
In: Plumb, Timothy R., technical coordinator. Proceedings of the
symposium on the ecology, management and utilization of California oaks;
1979 June 26-28; Claremont, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-44. Berkeley, CA:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest
and Range Experiment Station: 55-61. [7015]
39. Minnich, Richard A. 1987. The distribution of forest trees in northern
Baja California, Mexico. Madrono. 34(2): 98-127. [6985]
40. Minnich, R.; Howard, L. 1984. Biogeography and prehistory of shrublands.
In: DeVries, Johannes J., ed. Shrublands in California: literature
review and research needed for management. Contribution No. 191. Davis,
CA: University of California, Water Resources Center: 8-24. [4998]
41. Munz, Philip A. 1973. A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press. 1905 p. [6155]
42. Paysen, Timothy E.; Derby, Jeanine A.; Black, Hugh, Jr.; [and others].
1980. A vegetation classification system applied to southern California.
Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-45. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.
33 p. [1849]
43. Pryor, L. D. 1940. The effect of fire on exotic conifers: Some notes on
the effect of fire on exotic conifers in the Australian capital
territory. Australian Forestry. 5: 37-38. [11391]
44. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant
geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
45. Sawyer, John O.; Thornburgh, Dale A.; Griffin, James R. 1977. Mixed
evergreen forest. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial
vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley and Sons: 359-381.
[7218]
46. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species originating in northern
Rocky Mountain forests. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT; RWU 4403 files. 7 p. [20090]
47. Thorne, Robert F. 1976. The vascular plant communities of California.
In: Latting, June, ed. Symposium proceedings: plant communities of
southern California; 1974 May 4; Fullerton, CA. Special Publication No.
2. Berkeley, CA: California Native Plant Society: 1-31. [3289]
48. Thorne, Robert F. 1977. Montane and subalpine forests of the Transverse
and Peninsular ranges. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds.
Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley and Sons:
537-557. [7214]
49. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1982.
National list of scientific plant names. Vol. 1. List of plant names.
SCS-TP-159. Washington, DC. 416 p. [11573]
50. Van Dersal, William R. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States,
their erosion-control and wildlife values. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Agriculture. 362 p. [4240]
51. Van Wagner, Ralph. 1968. Survival of coniferous plantations following
fires in Los Angeles County. Journal of Forestry. 66(8): 622-625.
[6551]
52. Vogl, Richard J. 1976. An introduction to the plant communities of the
Santa Ana and San Jacinto Mountains. In: Latting, June, ed. Symposium
proceedings: plant communities of southern California; 1974 May 4;
Fullerton, CA. Special Publication No. 2. Berkeley, CA: California
Native Plant Society: 77-98. [4230]
53. Zedler, Paul H. 1986. Closed-cone conifers of the chaparral. Fremontia.
14(3): 14-17. [18648]
54. Vale, Thomas R. 1979. Pinus coulteri and wildfire on Mount Diablo,
California. Madrono. 26(3): 135-140. [21620]
55. Zobel, Bruce. 1953. Geographic range and intraspecific variation of
Coulter pine. Madrono. 11(8): 285-316. [21797]
56. Parsons, David J. 1976. The role of fire in natural communities: an
example from the southern Sierra Nevada, California. Environmental
Conservation. 3(2): 91-99. [6478]
57. Wright, Robert D. 1968. Lower elevational limits of montane trees. II.
Environment-keyed responses of three conifer species. Botanical Gazette.
129(3): 219-226. [19180]
58. St. John, Harold. 1973. List and summary of the flowering plants in the
Hawaiian islands. Hong Kong: Cathay Press Limited. 519 p. [25354]
FEIS Home Page
