Index of Species Information
SPECIES: Pinus virginiana
Introductory
SPECIES: Pinus virginiana
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Pinus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information
System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain
Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/pinvir/all.html [].
ABBREVIATION :
PINVIR
SYNONYMS :
NO-ENTRY
SCS PLANT CODE :
PIVI2
COMMON NAMES :
Virginia pine
scrub pine
Jersey pine
spruce pine
possum pine
shortstraw pine
poverty pine
oldfield pine
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted name of Virginia pine is Pinus virginiana Mill.
There are no accepted subspecies, varieties, or forms [14,23,25].
LIFE FORM :
Tree
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Pinus virginiana
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
The native range of Virginia pine extends from southern New Jersey west
to Pennsylvania and southern Ohio; south to South Carolina, northern
Georgia, northern Alabama, and northern Mississippi [12,25]. It has
also been planted in east-central Oklahoma [36].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES12 Longleaf - slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
STATES :
AL DE GA IN KY MD MS NJ NY NC
OH OK PA SC TN VA WV
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
NO-ENTRY
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K083 Cedar glades
K084 Cross Timbers
K089 Black Belt
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
40 Post oak - blackjack oak
43 Bear oak
45 Pitch pine
46 Eastern redcedar
50 Black locust
51 White pine - chestnut oak
52 White oak - black oak - northern red oak
53 White oak
55 Northern red oak
57 Yellow-poplar
64 Sassafras - persimmon
69 Sand pine
70 Longleaf pine
71 Longleaf pine - scrub oak
75 Shortleaf pine
78 Virginia pine - oak
79 Virginia pine
80 Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
81 Loblolly pine
82 Loblolly pine - hardwood
83 Longleaf pine - slash pine
108 Red maple
110 Black oak
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Virginia pine can occur in pure stands or as a member of mixed
pine-hardwood communities, particularly those with oak (Quercus spp.)
[60]. It is associated with pitch pine (P. rigida) and Table Mountain
pine (P. pungens) in the Appalachian Mountains. On the eastern shores
of Virginia and Maryland it is associated with loblolly pine (Pinus
taeda) and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua). In the Peidmont region
it is associated with shortleaf pine (P. echinata) and oaks [15].
Published classifications that include Virginia pine as a dominant or
codominant species include the following:
Classification and evaluation of forest sites in the Cumberland
Mountains [45]
Classification and evaluation of forest sites on the
northern Cumberland Plateau [46]
Classification and evaluation of forest sites on the
Natchez Trace State Forest [47]
Southeastern evergreen and oak-pine region [55]
Landscape ecosystem classification for South Carolina [63]
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Pinus virginiana
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
Virginia pine was previously used only for mine props, railroad ties,
rough lumber, fuel, tar, and charcoal. It currently has little
importance for lumber, but is becoming more important as a pulpwood
species, especially through the reforestation of abandoned agricultural
lands, cutover, and mined sites [7,14,54]. Several thousand acres of
land are planted in Virginia pine annually [25].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Virginia pine seeds are an important food source for many small mammals
and birds, including northern bobwhites [14,52]. Virginia pine forms
good nesting sites for woodpeckers due to a preponderance of softened
wood in older trees [7]. When used for revegetation of mine spoils,
Virginia pine has high value for wildlife cover and food [61]. It
provides browse for white-tailed deer, and probably for other animals as
well [52].
Virginia pine forests are the second highest producers of choice browse
for white-tailed deer in the Oconee National Forest, Georgia [21].
Young Virginia pine stands provide good habitat for rabbits, northern
bobwhite, and many nongame birds. Mature stands with a sparse shrub
layer are less valuable habitat [50].
PALATABILITY :
NO-ENTRY
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
The nutrient content (percent dry weight) of Virginia pine foliage was
reported as follows [44]:
Ca 0.55
Mg 0.08
P 0.10
K 0.32
lignin 33.6
COVER VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Within its natural range, Virginia pine is often a pioneer on mined
soils [61]. Virginia and loblolly pines have naturally reforested some
surface coal mines in Alabama, and are substantial producers of
commercial softwoods [30]. Natural revegetation on manganese mine
spoils in Virginia and Tennessee includes Virginia pine. It is widely
planted in the middle and southern Appalachian region on surface coal
mine spoils, and has good potential for revegetation of other disturbed
sites [6,34,36,54].
Virginia pine is adapted to a wide range of mined soils and performs
well on acidic and droughty sites [61]. On dark-colored coal mine wastes
in Pennsylvania, Virginia pine was more resistant to heat damage than
eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), Scotch pine (P. sylvestris) or jack
pine (P. banksiana). Plantings of Virginia pine outside its native
range are usually invaded by hardwoods within 15 to 20 years [61].
Performance of Virginia pine on surface coal mine spoils varies with
planting conditions and post-planting environmental conditions
[42,53,54,59,62].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Virginia pine is planted for Christmas trees [7,14].
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Virginia pine can produce good yields on sites that are marginal for
loblolly pine. Yields and performance vary with seed source [25,49].
Virginia pine is best managed with even-aged silvicultural systems.
Strip and patch cutting in short rotations are successful techniques for
harvest and regeneration of Virginia pine [18,50,58]. The transition
from mostly pure Virginia pine stands to oak-pine or oak-hickory (Carya
spp.) can be hastened by harvesting techniques [50,58].
Results of plantation trials of Virginia pine in the Cross Timbers area
of Oklahoma varied with moisture availability; survival rates are mostly
very high. Virginia pine, therefore, has good potential for
reforestation projects in this area [39].
Virginia pine is a common woody competitor of loblolly pine in
plantations [35].
It is recommended that old, decaying trees be left standing near the
margins of clearcuts for woodpecker nest sites [7].
Virginia pine can be propagated by grafting, and can be rooted from
cuttings [7].
Principal diseases of Virginia pine include heart rot and pitch canker.
Principal insect pests include the southern pine beetle, Ips spp.,
Virginia pine sawfly, redheaded pine sawfly, and pales weevil. Meadow
mice may girdle young trees [7]. Virgina pine is resistant to damage
by ozone [13,20].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Pinus virginiana
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Virginia pine is a native, medium-sized, two-needle pine. Average
height at maturity (50 years of age) is 50 to 75 feet (15-23 m) on
better sites [7]. Its long horizontal branches are irregularly spaced
[5,19]. Open-grown trees have persistent, heavy branches to the ground
[25]. The trunk is relatively short, with an open, flat-topped crown
[12]. The needles are about 2 inches (5 cm) long. The bark of young
stems is smooth; older stems have platy scales with shallow fissures
[14,25]. It is relatively short-lived; senescence usually occurs around
65 to 90 years. It rarely lives beyond 150 years of age [12,14,15]. The
root system is relatively shallow except on deep sands, where the taproot
can be from 6.6 to 10 feet (2-3 m) deep [25].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Age of sexual maturity for open-grown Virginia pine is usually around 5
years of age. Some precocious specimens have flowered at 18 months.
Sexual maturity may be delayed for up to 50 years of age in trees in
suppressed stands [7]. Virginia pine is a prolific seed producer
[15,29]. The cones open at maturity, and persist for at least several
years [14]. Most seeds are dispersed within 100 feet (30 m) of the
parent [7]. Exposed mineral soil is required for successful seedling
establishment; little to no shade is required. Seedlings are tolerant
of lower soil moisture than most other pines, though growth is slower on
dry sites [7].
Asexual regeneration: Sprouts on cut stumps of Virginia pine have been
reported, but are usually short lived [7].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Virginia pine grows soils derived from marine deposits, crystalline
rocks, sandstones and shales, and to a lesser extent, limestone [7].
Most of these soils are well- to excessively drained, sandy, and weakly
acidic [14,19,27,29]. The best growth of Virginia pine is on clay, loam,
or sandy loam. Growth is poor on serpentine, shallow shale, or very
sandy soils [7]. Soil pH ranges from 4.6 to 7.9. Virginia pine occurs
at elevations from 50 to 2,500 feet (15-760 m), with hilly topography
[7,27,58].
Tree associates not previously mentioned include scarlet oak (Q.
coccinea), hickories (Carya ovata, C. ovalis, C. glabra), blackgum
(Nyssa sylvatica), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), eastern hemlock
(Tsuga canadensis), and eastern white pine [7,33]. There is usually a
sparse shrub understory [27].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Obligate Initial Community Species
Virginia pine is an aggressive invader of burned sites [5,14,37]. It is
intolerant of shade [7,14]. Virginia pine is a transitional type, and
is usually quickly replaced by tolerant hardwoods [7]. In pioneer
stands in Virginia, Virginia pine made up to 50 percent of the total
importance value. Its importance decreases with stand age. Mixed stands
with white oak, yellow-poplar and sweetgum are formed by mid-succession.
Late-successional stands are dominated by oaks and hickories, with very
little Virginia pine remaining [38,50].
Virginia pine is usually well represented in early stages of oldfield
succession on dry sites [40].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Virginia pine pollen is released from March to May, depending on
latitude [7,14]. Fertilization occurs in June, 13 months after
pollination. Seeds mature by mid- to late August. Cones mature by late
September to early November. Seed dispersal begins in October and is
usually complete by January [7].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Pinus virginiana
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Virginia pine is not well adapted to survive fire due to thin bark and
shallow roots [12]. Large trees however, are apparently able to survive
fires. Virginia pine stands that include six size classes (d.b.h) have
nbeen documented. This size distribution is apparently due to fires
that burned at approximately 20- to 30-year intervals. The larger
trees, therefore, survived at least one fire [3]. Virginia pine
populations are maintained by fire or other disturbance; Virginia pine
is a colonizer of recently burned sites [37]. Root crown sprouts have
been reported, but are apparently not an important fire survival
mechanism [7].
Fire regimes in habitats containing Virginia pine have been altered by
humans for many years. It is thought that prior to European settlement,
Indians maintained large tracts of pine forests through intentional
burning of forest lands for various purposes (e.g., agriculture,
wildlife harvest) [9,57]. These fires created a patchwork of
communities, increasing the amount of area covered by pioneer or
pyrophytic species such as Virginia and pitch pines [57]. Currently,
lightning fires do occur, but are of low importance compared to those
started by people [9]. Landers [27] estimated the fire return interval
in the southeastern United States at approximately 2 fires of high
intensity per 100 years. In the Great Smoky Mountains National Park,
Tennesee and South Carolina, fire intervals for 1856 to 1900 and for
1900 to 1940 were both estimated to be 9.2 years below 2,000 feet (610
m) elevation, and 11.3 years above that elevation [22].
Virginia pine occurs in the area in and around Shenandoah National Park,
Virginia, which has two fire seasons: spring (February 15 to May 15) and
fall (October 15 to December 15) [57].
FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find Fire Regimes".
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Tree without adventitious-bud root crown
Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Pinus virginiana
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
Mature Virginia pine trees can withstand low- to moderate-severity
surface fires. Severe fires will kill Virginia pine [9].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
Virginia pine is an aggressive invader of burned sites [37]. After a
hot surface fire in a 30-year-old pine-hardwood stand, 45 percent of all
trees died within 2 years. There were large numbers of pine (Virginia
and loblolly pine) seedlings by 2.25 years after the fire. Density was
10,750 per acre, compared with 250 per acre on unburned plots [10].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
The Research Project Summary
Early postfire response of southern Appalachian
Table Mountain-pitch pine stands to prescribed fires in North Carolina and
Virginia
provides information on prescribed
fire use and postfire response
of plant community species,
including Virginia pine, that was not available
when this species review was originally written.
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Approximately one-half of the standing crop of Virginia pine needles is
shed annually. Leaf litter produced by a 17-year-old stand was
calculated to be similar to the amount produced by longleaf pine (Pinus
palustris) [29,31,32].
Strip-clearcutting followed by broadcast burning of slash prior to
seedfall favors Virginia pine regeneration [29].
Crown fires in pine or pine-hardwood forests in which Virginia pine
occurs remove enough of the canopy for good Virginia pine regeneration.
Hot or cool surface fires do not remove sufficient canopy for good
Virginia pine regeneration [4].
Virginia pine is less resistant to fire than loblolly pine, shortleaf
pine, or pitch pine. Fire will therefore reduce the importance of
Virginia pine in mixed stands [7]. Sapling stands are more vulnerable
to grass fires than similar-aged stands of shortleaf or loblolly pine
[18].
Thickness of Virginia pine bark was estimated at 2.7 percent of d.b.h.
[8]. Bark thickness required for 50 percent survival of Virginia pine
subjected to low-intensity fire was calculated by three models. Using
that estimate, the length of time needed for tree growth to be
sufficient to resist fire damage was calculated as 13 years for
open-grown stands and 23 to 28 years for closed-canopy stands [24].
Virginia pine had the slowest decay rate for standing dead trees of 10
commonly associated species [23].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Pinus virginiana
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