Reference Documents

Interim Rule Environmental Assessment

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Land Uses (non-recreational)

More than 47,000 active, non-recreational special use authorizations exist on NFS lands. These authorizations involve nearly 150 different types of uses on 26 million acres of land and result in $7 million in fees to the United States. Special uses include communication sites, public and private roads, and energy related transmission rights-of-way (i.e., linear special uses such as pipelines and electric transmission lines). Non-recreational special use authorizations assist in supplying a variety of goods and services to the public and support services provided by other Federal, State, and local agencies. Approximately 8,000 applications for new or renewal non-recreational special uses are estimated in fiscal years 1998 and 1999.

Special Use - Private Access. Private access management allows people with private property within national forest boundaries to access their property via authorization from the Forest Service. All private interest access projects needed to satisfy the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act or other statutory rights-of-access are exempt from the proposed temporary suspension. Access provided pursuant to statutory rights-of-access and reserved or outstanding rights are also exempt from the proposed temporary suspension. Landowner access need not be the most direct, economical, or convenient route for the landowner. Adequate access may not be road access in all cases, and alternative modes of access may be considered. If a landowner has an alternative mode of access, the Forest Service is not obligated to permit access.

Each year the Forest Service issues about 500 private access permits. Reasonable access would be determined on a case-by-case basis. The effect of the proposed temporary suspension on private access would be negligible under all alternatives.

Alternative 1 - Current management. Under this alternative, 417 special use-private access applications requesting 174 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction for private access purposes have been estimated on all NFS lands during the 18-month suspension period; 7 miles of reconstruction and 35 miles of construction for private access purposes are estimated in unroaded areas of NFS lands during the 18-month suspension period.

Alternatives 2 and 3. Under these alternatives, 2 miles of road construction and 2 miles of road reconstruction for private access purposes would be suspended on unroaded NFS lands. One and a half miles of road construction in Region 2, a half mile of road reconstruction in Region 5, and one-quarter mile of road construction and one mile of road reconstruction for private access purposes in Region 8 would be affected.

Alternative 4 - Broadest safeguards. Under this alternative, 2 miles of road construction and 2 miles of road reconstruction for private access purposes would be suspended on unroaded NFS lands. One and a half miles of construction in Region 2, one mile of construction and a half mile of reconstruction in Region 5, one-tenth mile of construction in Region 6, and one-quarter mile of construction and 1 mile of reconstruction in Region 8 for private access purposes would be affected.

Alternative 5 - RARE II without exemptions. Under this alternative, 2 miles of road construction and 2 miles of road reconstruction for private access purposes would be suspended on unroaded NFS lands. One and a half miles of construction in Region 2, a half mile of reconstruction in Region 5, one-tenth of a mile of construction in Region 6, and 1 mile of reconstruction and one-quarter mile of construction for private access purposes in Region 8 would be affected.

Alternative 6 - Preferred alternative. Under this alternative, 2 miles of road construction and 2 miles of road reconstruction for private access purposes would be suspended on unroaded NFS lands. One and a half miles of construction in Region 2, a half mile of reconstruction in Region 5, and one-quarter mile of construction and 1 mile of reconstruction for private access purposes in Region 8 would be affected.

Special Use - Linear. The Forest Service uses a system of transportation and utility corridors for location of linear rights-of-way. A rights-of-way corridor may include transportation and utility facilities typically identified in forest plans such as electric transmission lines, oil and gas transmission pipelines, canals, ditches, and conduits, railroads, and State, Federal, or interstate highways.

A linear corridor is a parcel of land that has been identified by law or in a forest plan as a preferred location for existing and future rights-of-way uses, and is suitable to accommodate more than one type of linear use. Special use MOUs include proposals involving multiagency jurisdictions that have been processed as of the effective date of the final interim rule with an application and MOU. The effect of the proposed temporary suspension on linear special uses would be negligible under all alternatives.

Alternative 1 - Current management. Under this alternative, 66 miles of road construction, 39 miles of road reconstruction, and 19 miles of temporary road construction for linear special use purposes have been estimated on all NFS lands during the 18-month suspension period. Under 2 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction for linear special use purposes is estimated to be in unroaded areas of NFS lands during the 18-month suspension period.

Alternatives 2 through 6. Under these alternatives, less than one and a half miles of road construction for linear special use purposes would be suspended on unroaded NFS Lands.

Rights-of-Way. Two prominent statutes were addressed during the public comment period, the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) and R.S. 2477 (43 U.S.C. 932), which is Section 8 of the Mining Act of 1866. ANILCA ensures access to private land in-holdings. R.S. 2477 was the primary authority under which many State and county highways were constructed and operated on Federal lands in the Western United States without approval from the Federal government or documentation in the public land records. Although R.S. 2477 was repealed with passage of the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976, rights that preexisted establishment of the national forests remain.

All alternatives. Rights-of-way under ANILCA and R.S. 2477 are exempt from the proposed temporary suspension under all alternatives.

Cost-Share Easements. These are easement grants for roads on NFS lands constructed under cooperative arrangements with landowners who are served by the roads. Landowners must construct their proportionate share of the roads and convey needed rights-of-way to the United States.

All alternatives. Cost-share road agreements would be exempt from the proposed temporary suspension under all alternatives

Roads provide access for law enforcement patrols for criminal activity. Many roads affected by the proposed temporary suspension are timber harvest roads that would be closed following or during harvest. In a road system estimated at 373,000 miles, variations of a few hundred miles would not cause any measurable difference in law enforcement or criminal activity.

All alternatives. The proposed temporary suspension would not impact law enforcement activities. Permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles needed for the immediate protection of public safety would be exempt from the proposed temporary suspension under all alternatives. There are no projects estimated for the immediate protection of public safety.

The minerals industry pays the construction cost for all mineral activity and, if requested by the Forest Service, pays for the cost of road obliteration or decommissioning after energy and mineral exploration or development. Reasonable access to privately owned minerals under Forest Service administered land, access authorized to explore or file claims in accordance with the mining laws, and access to existing mining claims, leases, licenses, permits and contracts on NFS lands would be exempt from the proposed temporary suspension. The proposed temporary suspension would not have an economic impact on the minerals industry assuming reasonable access remains to mining claims, leases, licenses, permits, and contracts, and assuming mineral leasing land allocation decisions are unaffected. Access to new leases, licenses, permits, and contracts issued in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be subject to the policies of the final interim rule.

Leasing decisions do not include decisions on permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction and will be unaffected by the proposed temporary suspension. There are 334,000 acres in unroaded areas of NFS lands on the Beaverhead-Dearlodge, Custer, San Juan-Rio Grande, White River, Bridger-Teton, Manti-La Sal and Monogahella National Forests scheduled for auction. Many of these leases would not receive bids due to low interest and the state of the domestic industry.

Alternative 1 - Current management. Under this alternative, there are an estimated 685 new mineral exploration or development proposals involving 255 miles on all NFS lands and 58 miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction during the 18-month suspension period. Reasonable access for these projects would be determined on a case-by-case basis following established NEPA and ESA compliance procedures. Methods of access for exploration and development are highly variable depending on the proposal.

Alternatives 2 through 6. The effect of the proposed temporary suspension on mineral exploration or development would be negligible under alternatives 2 through 6. Estimated mineral exploration and development on NFS lands would be unaffected. There would be no significant change in the number of projects in unroaded areas of NFS lands and no significant change at the regional level. Oil and gas exploration and development for new leases in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be affected under all alternatives. There would probably be no or very few proposals to explore newly issued leases affected by the proposed temporary suspension.

Approximately 6 to 7 million acres of NFS lands are infested with noxious weeds and nonnative invasive plants. Their estimated rate of spread is between 8% and 12% per year. Over the past 5 years the Forest Service has treated over 338,000 acres of noxious weeds and has substantially accelerated treatment.

Permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction present the greatest opportunity for infestation of NFS lands. Because road construction and maintenance are ground disturbing, they are easy points of entry and infestation. Aside from vehicles bringing in weed seeds, other uses or ground disturbing activities, such as timber harvest, mining, trail building, grazing, and recreational activities, contribute to infestation.

Roads are used to access weed infestations quickly and easily, and to provide access to infestations in unroaded areas of NFS lands. Lack of vehicle access could increase the cost of treatment by requiring aerial or hand spraying. For all alternatives to the current management alternative, the positive effect of reduced ground disturbance and thus, reduced noxious weed introduction and spread, outweighs a possible higher cost of noxious weed treatment. Generally, the greatest possibility for infestation is in roaded areas.

Different levels of road construction, reconstruction, timber harvest, and other ground disturbing activities would occur under each alternative. To identify the potential effects, the acreage available to infestation is equivalent to the potential acreage disturbed or to the reduction in acres potentially affected if ground disturbing activities are suspended.

Alternative 1 - Current management. Under this alternative, permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction is estimated to be 8,948 miles on all NFS lands and 534 miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands during the 18-month suspension period. This alternative does not suspend any permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction and thus, provides for the greatest possibility of increased noxious weed and nonnative plant introduction. The potential, although not necessarily the actual, amount of infestation is equal to the total amount of land that would be disturbed under this alternative.

Alternatives 2 through 6. Approximately 207 miles (alternative 2) to 461 miles (alternative 4) of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would be suspended. This is the potential reduction in the level of noxious weed introduction and spread currently associated with road construction and reconstruction under the current management alternative. Any other activities suspended under these alternatives would increase the potential reduction in infestation level. Given the existing 373,000 miles of existing road system, the amount of disturbance under any alternative would not appreciably alter the overall rate of spread nor would it contribute substantially to the overall amount of NFS lands infested.

Roads provide opportunities to view scenic vistas, use motorized vehicles, and access campgrounds, picnic areas, marinas, resorts, ski areas, and other facilities. Less developed or wild settings are accessed over roads to a trailhead. Few roads have been built on NFS lands for the sole purpose of recreation, but all are available for use by recreationists. While roads provide access for recreationists, they can decrease the quality of recreation experiences if not well managed. Increased access can provide people with the opportunity to enjoy unique and sensitive areas, but it can also make protection of these areas difficult.

Developed Recreation Facility Projects. Some roads are constructed primarily to provide access to government-owned developed-recreation facilities. Approximately 12,600 Forest Service developed sites exist nationwide (USDA Forest Service 1996). The ability to access these developed sites is directly effected by road construction and reconstruction. Local tourism and economies and scheduling new developed-site construction are indirectly effected by road construction and reconstruction. The effect of the proposed temporary suspension on developed-recreation facilities would be negligible under all alternatives.

Alternative 1 - Current management. Under this alternative, 195 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction associated with access to government-owned developed-recreation facilities is estimated on all NFS lands and less than 1 mile is estimated in unroaded areas of NFS lands during the 18-month suspension period. Approximately 534 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction have been estimated for all resource purposes in unroaded areas of NFS lands. Developed-recreation facilities on NFS lands would be unaffected under this alternative.

Alternatives 2 through 6. Less than 1 mile of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction associated with access to government facilities would be affected under these alternatives, in Region 8. The effect of the proposed temporary suspension on developed-recreation facilities would be negligible under these alternatives.

Scenic Quality. Scenic quality is the landscape character (the visual combination of natural and cultural attributes) that provides landscape identity, sense of place, and scenic integrity (the completeness of the desired character). Landscapes with a variety in vegetative patterns, water features, and rock and land forms can tolerate human-built elements or natural events and have high scenic integrity. Conversely, landscapes with monotonous character reveal deviations quickly and have low scenic integrity. All resource management activities attempt to achieve long-term sustainable goals within the scenic integrity objectives identified in the forest planning process.

Scenic integrity depends on the existing ecosystem condition and on estimated management activities. Temporary suspension of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction in unroaded areas of NFS lands would generally maintain the scenic integrity of those areas. However, in ecosystems with forest health problems or those in late seral stages, a lack of road access could contribute to declining scenic quality by deterring the management needed to maintain desired scenic attributes. In this analysis, effects on scenic quality in unroaded areas of NFS lands are estimated solely by suspended road construction and reconstruction miles. Effects on scenic quality during the proposed temporary suspension would be minor under all alternatives.

Alternative 1 - Current management. Under this alternative there would be the highest risk to maintaining scenic integrity. Areas with low scenic integrity or ecosystem health problems may have the most chance of long-term improvement of scenic integrity because management may increase.

Alternative 2 - RARE II With exemptions. Under this alternative there would be the lowest risk to maintaining scenic integrity, especially in areas with high scenic integrity because of the estimated 207 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction suspended. Areas with low scenic integrity or ecosystem health problems may have less chance of long-term improvement of scenic integrity because management may increase.

Alternative 3 - Proposed action. Under this alternative there would be a low risk to maintaining scenic integrity, especially in areas of high scenic integrity because of the estimated 243 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction suspended. Areas with low scenic integrity or ecosystem health problems may have less chance of long-term improvement of scenic integrity because management options may increase.

Alternative 4 - Broadest safeguards. Under this alternative there would be a moderately low risk to maintaining scenic integrity, especially in areas of high scenic integrity because of the estimated 461 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction suspended. Areas with low scenic integrity or ecosystem health problems may have more chance of long-term improvement of scenic integrity because management may increase.

Alternative 5 - RARE II without Exemptions. Under this alternative there would be a low risk to maintaining scenic integrity, especially in areas of high scenic integrity because of the estimated 401 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction suspended. Areas with low scenic integrity or ecosystem health problems may have less chance of long-term improvement of scenic integrity because management may increase.

Alternative 6 - Preferred alternative. Under this alternative there would be low risk to maintaining scenic integrity, especially in areas of high scenic integrity because of the estimated 262 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction suspended. Areas with low scenic integrity or ecosystem health problems may have more chance of long-term improvement of scenic integrity because management may increase.

Winter Sports Sites and Other Recreation Resort Developments. Resort developments include ski areas and other recreation facilities on NFS lands that are primarily owned and operated by the private sector. As of 1996, approximately 140 of the 449 ski areas in the United States were on NFS lands (USDA Forest Service 1996). Resorts on NFS lands are authorized by special use permit. This permit serves as a long-term, legally binding relationship between the resort operator and the Forest Service, and reflects the Forest Service's decision to allow land within the permit boundaries to be developed as a resort. The permit allows specified development and is the basis for the resort operator's planning and financial decision making.

Road development has direct financial effects on resort operation and on agreements made between the resort operator and the Forest Service. Any action that suspends road construction would negatively affect the resort operator and the permit agreements. Ski area planning and analysis often take years to complete. Comments received from the ski industry indicate a concern about possible delay or suspension of planning activities. The proposed temporary suspension would not affect current planning activities.

Under all alternatives, roads authorized under special use permits within a Master Development Plan (MDP) would be exempt. Most projects that rely on road access are enhancements or expansions of existing ski areas or other resorts with MDPs and thus, are exempt from the proposed temporary suspension. The effect on winter sports sites and other recreation resorts must be considered on a case-by-case basis since the status of MDPs and geographic location would determine whether the proposed temporary suspension applies. Two estimated permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction projects may be needed for development of new ski areas during the 18-month suspension period. However, development of new ski areas is often subject to development schedule extensions and thus, often does not meet proposed implementation dates. Less than 10 miles of temporary and permanent road construction are proposed on unroaded areas for alternatives 2, 3, and 6 in Regions 5 and 1. Less than 15 miles of temporary and permanent road construction are proposed for alternatives 4 and 5 in Regions 5, 6, and 1. The effect of the proposed temporary suspension on resorts and ski areas would be negligible under all alternatives.

Alternative 1 - Current management. Under this alternative, permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction associated with privately owned resorts is estimated to be 27 miles on all NFS lands and 18 miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands during the 18-month suspension period.

Estimated road miles for privately owned resorts and all other resort activities on NFS lands would be unaffected under this alternative.

Alternatives 2, 3, and 6. Under these alternatives, less than 10 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction for 2 ski areas could be affected. Approximately 7 miles of road construction for 1 new ski area development in Region 5 is estimated. Although scheduled for implementation, permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction may not proceed during the 18-month suspension period. Less than 1 mile of temporary road construction for a ski area expansion in Region 1 would be suspended. However, the expansion project could proceed without the temporary road construction, so impacts to the ski area would be minor. In addition, the EA and MDP is nearly complete for this expansion. If the MDP is completed before the effective date of the final interim rule, the road activity would proceed. All other resort activities that do not require road construction or reconstruction would continue under these alternatives.

Alternatives 4 and 5. Under these alternatives, less than 15 miles of permanent and temporary road construction for 3 ski areas would be affected. Approximately 13 miles of road construction for 1 new ski area development in Region 5 and 1 in Region 6 are estimated. Although scheduled for implementation, permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction may not proceed during the 18-month suspension period. Less than 1 mile of temporary road construction for a ski area expansion in Region 1 could be suspended. However, the expansion project could proceed without the temporary road construction, so impacts to the ski area would be minor. In addition, the EA and MDP is nearly complete for this expansion. If the MDP is completed before the effective date of the final interim rule, the road activity would proceed. All other resort activities that do not require road construction or reconstruction would continue under these alternatives.

Recreation Settings and Dispersed Recreation. Recreation settings describe an area and the solitude it provides for recreation opportunities. Recreation settings providing the most to the least solitude are: primitive, semi-primitive nonmotorized, semi-primitive motorized, roaded natural, rural, and urban. Unroaded areas of NFS lands are primarily in the primitive and semi-primitive non-roaded categories. Dispersed recreation activities associated with these settings include backpacking, hiking, and similar activities in which solitude is desirable. The remaining categories are associated with less solitude and emphasize motorized recreation opportunities, although nonmotorized uses also occur.

Effects of the alternatives on recreation settings can be generalized based on estimated suspended permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles. Permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction that meet recreation access objectives have a focused, predictable effect on dispersed recreation opportunities and settings. Permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction for other objectives have a less predictable effect on dispersed recreation opportunities and settings. Effects on recreation settings and dispersed recreation opportunities during the proposed temporary suspension would vary depending on the supply of dispersed settings and the demand for solitude in a geographic area.

Alternative 1 - Current management. Under this alternative, permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would produce the largest number and magnitude of affects on solitude with an estimated 8,948 miles on all NFS lands and an estimated 534 miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands during the 18-month suspension period. Region 10 has the highest estimated percentage of road construction in unroaded areas of NFS lands. Regions 10 and 8 have the most estimated miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction, while Regions 3 and 5 have the least.

Under this alternative, permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles for access to recreation settings is the highest with an estimated 190 miles on all NFS lands and 8 miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands. Region 1 has estimated the most road miles in all areas of NFS lands that would provide access to dispersed recreation settings and increase dispersed recreation opportunities. Regions 2, 5, and 10 have estimated the least road miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands that would provide access to dispersed recreation settings and increase dispersed recreation opportunities. Region 8 has estimated no road miles that would provide access to dispersed recreation settings and increase dispersed recreation opportunities.

While permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction may increase dispersed recreation access, it could decrease solitude and therefore, decrease the quality of the experience in dispersed recreation settings. Opportunities for dispersed recreation are maintained due to road construction and reconstruction for all resource purposes in addition to those for the primary purpose of recreation. However, there would also be the most risk of decreasing solitude under this alternative.

Alternative 2 - RARE II with exemptions. Under this alternative, permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would produce a high number of opportunities for dispersed recreation and less opportunities for solitude, with an estimated 207 miles suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands during the 18-month suspension period. Region 8 has the highest estimated permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands. Regions 8 and 4 have the most estimated permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles suspended, while Regions 3 and 10 have the least. Under this alternative, Region 4 suspends an estimated 3 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands for access to dispersed recreation settings. Region 1 has the most estimated road miles suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands that would provide access to dispersed recreation settings and increase dispersed opportunities. Regions 2, 5, and 10 have the least estimated road miles suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands that would provide access to dispersed recreation settings and increase dispersed opportunities. Region 8 has no estimated road miles suspended that would provide access to dispersed recreation settings and increase dispersed opportunities.

While permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction may increase dispersed recreation access, it could decrease solitude and therefore, decrease the quality of the experience in dispersed recreation settings. Opportunities for dispersed recreation are slightly reduced from alternative 1; however, there would be a risk of decreasing solitude under this alternative. Regions 4 and 8 would be the affected. Regions 5, 9, and 10 would be least affected. Region 3 would be unaffected.

Alternative 3 - Proposed action. Under this alternative, permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would maintain many opportunities for dispersed recreation and provide reduced opportunities for solitude, with an estimated 243 miles suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands during the 18-month suspension period. Region 8 has the highest estimated permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands. Regions 8 and 4 have the most estimated miles suspended of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction, while Regions 3 and 10 have the least. This alternative suspends an estimated 7 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction in unroaded areas of NFS lands for access to dispersed recreation settings in Regions 4 and 5.

While permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction may increase dispersed recreation access, it could decrease solitude and therefore, decrease the quality of the experience in dispersed recreation settings. Under this alternative, many opportunities for dispersed recreation are maintained; however, there would be a risk of decreasing solitude compared to alternative 1 while providing more opportunities for solitude than alternatives 4 and 5. Regions 4 and 8 would be most affected. Regions 6 and 10 would be least affected. Region 3 would be unaffected.

Alternative 4 - Broadest safeguards. Under this alternative, permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would provide the least opportunities for dispersed recreation and provide the most opportunities for solitude, with an estimated 461 miles suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands during the 18-month suspension period. Region 10 has the highest estimated permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands. Regions 10 and 8 have the most estimated permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles suspended, while Regions 5 and 6 have the least. Region 3 would be unaffected. Under this alternative, Regions 2, 4, and 5 would suspend an estimated 8 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction in unroaded areas of NFS lands for access to dispersed recreation settings.

While fewer permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles may decrease dispersed recreation access, it could increase solitude and therefore, increase the quality of the experience in dispersed recreation settings. The most opportunities for dispersed recreation are lost under this alternative; however, there would be the most opportunities to maintain solitude under this alternative. There is an opportunity for maintaining some primitive and semi-primitive nonmotorized settings during the 18-month suspension period under this alternative.

Alternative 5 - RARE II without exemptions. Under this alternative, permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would provide reduced opportunities for dispersed recreation and provide many opportunities for solitude, with an estimated 401 miles suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands during the 18-month suspension period. Region 10 has the highest estimated permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands. Regions 10 and 8 have the most estimated permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles suspended, while Regions 5 and 8 have the least. Region 3 would be unaffected. Under this alternative, Regions 2 and 4 suspend an estimated 5 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction in unroaded areas of NFS lands for access to dispersed recreation settings.

While fewer permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles may decrease dispersed recreation access, it could increase solitude and therefore, increase the quality of the experience in dispersed recreation settings. Many opportunities for dispersed recreation are lost under this alternative; however, there would be the more opportunities to maintain solitude under this alternative.

Alternative 6 - Preferred alternative. Under this alternative, permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would maintain many opportunities for dispersed recreation and provide reduced opportunities for solitude, with an estimated 262 miles suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands during the 18-month suspension period. Region 8 has the highest estimated permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands. Regions 8 and 4 have the estimated permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles suspended, while Regions 3 and 10 have the least. Under this alternative, Regions 4 and 5 suspend an estimated 7 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction in unroaded areas of NFS lands for access to dispersed recreation settings.

While permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction may increase dispersed recreation access, it could decrease solitude and therefore, decrease the quality of the experience in dispersed recreation settings. Under this alternative, many opportunities for dispersed recreation are maintained; however, there would be a risk of decreasing solitude compared to alternative 1, while providing more opportunities for solitude than alternatives 4 and 5. Regions 4 and 8 would be most affected. Regions 6 and 10 would be least affected. Region 3 would be unaffected.

Authorized Commercial Uses. The Forest Service authorizes commercial use of NFS lands annually or on a temporary basis. An outfitter/guide service that provides recreation opportunities is an example of annual use. An endurance race is an example of a temporary use. There are approximately 8,000 annual commercial-use permits issued for use of NFS lands annually (USDA Forest Service 1996). Most temporary uses are not considered because of their impermanence.

Annual and temporary commercial use is usually not restricted to a specific location therefore, most can be estimated around areas that would be affected by the proposed temporary suspension. Effects on annual and temporary commercial uses would be similar to those described under Recreation Settings and Dispersed Recreation.

All alternatives. No permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles were estimated that are associated with commercial annual or temporary use during the proposed temporary suspension. The effect of the proposed temporary suspension on authorized annual and temporary uses would be negligible under all alternatives.

Cultural Resources. Sites of cultural and historic value occur across NFS lands and are protected under the Preservation of American Antiquities Act of 1906 and the Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979. Management activities for these sites range from protection to interpretation. The effects on cultural sites from permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction may range from increased site protection and enhanced interpretation to degradation due to increased access by looters and vandals.

All alternatives. No permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles were estimated that are associated with interpretation or protection of cultural sites during the proposed temporary suspension. The effect of the proposed temporary suspension on cultural sites would be negligible under all alternatives.

Many land management activities affect water, soil, and air resources to varying degrees and intensity. The most common direct and indirect physical effects of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction on watershed and air resources are loss of ground-cover vegetation, soil compaction, reduced transpiration (the passage of water vapor from a living body through a membrane or pores), loss of productive soils and increased water runoff, soil erosion, and dust levels. Proper design, construction, and maintenance can minimize these effects, but not entirely eliminate them.

Most impacts occur during initial road construction followed by decreasing impacts as roadside vegetation and surfacing mature. Periodic maintenance activities usually cause brief increases in impacts, particularly on the road surface and associated ditches. Temporary road construction has most

of the same effects as permanent road construction, but it is generally for a shorter term and has less physical extent. Long-term effects can occur if temporary roads receive extended use and are not decommissioned as planned. All Forest Service permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction is accomplished under management practices that meet or exceed those mandated by the States under EPA direction. Even so, any permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would have some impact on water, soil, and air resources.

Sedimentation. Roads affect surface erosion, landslides, and sedimentation. General surface erosion produces mostly fine sediment, while landslides produce sediment of all sizes. Permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction causes some increased surface erosion and landslide risk, but this varies widely and depends on local site characteristics. The number of permanent and temporary road miles constructed and reconstructed provides the best estimate of effects from sedimentation.

Hydrology. Roads affect hydrology by intercepting, concentrating, and diverting runoff. Roads also increase the density of streams on the landscape. A road can intercept rainfall and groundwater and promote the concentration and movement of runoff to the stream channel. Interception of groundwater by a road can reduce the flow of a spring or may cause a spring to become a flowing stream. Roads also indirectly affect hydrology since they replace trees that use water through evapotranspiration (loss of water from the soil through evaporation and from plants through transpiration). Water otherwise used by trees is available for runoff rather than returned to the atmosphere, which may increase streamflow and possibly flood peaks. Some increased flood frequency and higher flood levels occur due to existing roads.

Water Quality. Roads cause some measurable reduction in water quality. Most water quality concerns, other than sediment, relate to the possible introduction of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorous, from harvest activities and toxic chemicals. These pollutants may be from road construction and maintenance equipment or brought into the watershed through public road use. Roads also cause water temperature to change where groundwater is intercepted and brought to the surface or where loss of tree cover in riparian areas reduces shading. Roads may indirectly affect water quality by increasing the release of certain nutrients from the decomposition of timber harvest by-products (e.g., leaves, branches, etc.).

Site Productivity. Permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction causes a direct loss of site productivity on the acres occupied by the road. This is more important with roads near or encroaching on wetland or riparian areas, although Forest Service policy is to avoid or minimize the effects to these areas. Although not irreversible, land occupied by roads is essentially lost to long-term productive vegetative use.

Air Quality. Permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction causes dust and increased exhaust emissions. Although this increased level of exhaust is usually insignificant in dispersed rural areas, it can affect visibility. Dust and visibility are problems when national parks and national forest Wilderness Areas are near class I and II areas.

The effect of the proposed temporary suspension on water, soil, and air resources would be negligible under all alternatives.

Alternative 1 - Current management. Under this alternative, permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would produce the largest number and magnitude of effects on watershed and air resources during the 18-month suspension period. The trend toward a reconstruction focus is generally positive for watershed and air resources. Region 10 has the highest estimated percentage (35%) of road construction in unroaded areas of NFS lands. Regions 8 and 9 rely more than other regions on temporary road construction rather than on road construction or reconstruction. Regions 10 and 8 have the most estimated permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles, while Regions 3 and 5 have the least. This alternative has the highest number of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles for watershed improvement purposes on all NFS lands (534) and in unroaded areas of NFS lands (11).

Alternative 2 - RARE II with exemptions. This alternative would have the second largest effect on watershed and air resources. Under this alternative, 72 road construction miles, 69 road reconstruction miles, and 66 temporary road construction miles would be suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands. Allowing reconstruction to continue while suspending construction produces fewer environmental effects. Regions 4 and 8 would suspend the highest percentage of road construction miles, while Region 3 would have no suspensions. Under this alternative, an estimated 4 miles for watershed improvement purposes would be suspended.

Alternative 3 - Proposed action. This alternative has the third largest effect on watershed and air resources. Under this alternative, 78 road construction miles, 75 road reconstruction miles, and 90 temporary road construction miles would be suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands. Regions 4 and 8 would suspend the highest percentage of road construction miles, while Region 3 would have no suspensions. Under this alternative, an estimated 4 miles for watershed improvement purposes would be suspended.

Alternative 4 - Broadest safeguards. This alternative has the lowest effect on watershed and air resources. Under this alternative, 214 road construction miles, 92 road reconstruction miles, and 155 temporary road construction miles would be suspended. Region 10 would suspend 113 miles of road construction and 45 miles of temporary road construction. Regions 1, 2, and 4 would also suspend large amounts of road construction, while Region 3 would have no suspensions. Under this alternative, an estimated 11 miles for watershed improvement purposes would be suspended.

Alternative 5 - RARE II without exemptions. This alternative has the second lowest effect on watershed and air resources. Under this alternative, 201 road construction miles, 75 road reconstruction miles, and 125 temporary road construction miles would be suspended. A large amount of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles would be suspended under this alternative, while most reconstruction would proceed. Under this alternative, an estimated 5 miles for watershed improvement purposes would be suspended.

Alternative 6 - Preferred alternative. This alternative has the third lowest effect on watershed and air resources. Under this alternative, 82 road construction miles, 78 road reconstruction miles, and 102 temporary road construction miles would be suspended. Regions 1, 4, and 5 would suspend the highest percentage of road construction miles. Regions 4 and 8 would suspend the highest percentage of road reconstruction miles. Regions 8 and 9 would suspend the highest percentage of temporary road construction miles. Region 3 would have no suspensions. Under this alternative, an estimated 5 miles for watershed improvement purposes would be suspended.

Important impacts on wildlife, fish and TES species are the: 1. beneficial effect from suspension of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction; 2. road-related impacts that occur either directly or in association with road construction or reconstruction; and 3. detrimental effect from suspended implementation of projects with a primary wildlife, fish, or TES species purpose.

The suspension of road reconstruction and construction activities in the identified area would have a short-term benefit for wildlife, fisheries, TES species during the 18-month suspension period. The short-term benefit is a greater degree of certainty for reduced future impact as a result of new analytical tools and revised road management policy. The suspension ensures that the unique qualities within unroaded areas will not be altered by roading before a management strategy with greater certainty for reduced risk of adverse environmental effects to wildlife, fisheries, and TES species can be developed. However, these beneficial effects will be insignificant due to the limited time frame, area affected, and intensity of beneficial effects.

Unroaded areas are particularly important for species such as the grizzly bear which require large home ranges and are also sensitive to human disturbance (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1993). Additionally, unroaded areas are often located in headwater areas that represent refugia habitats for TES fish species, such as steelhead and bull trout (Frissel 1993).

Estimated road miles within unroaded areas of NFS lands were grouped by project type including wildlife, fisheries, TES, and forest management. The primary purpose of each road was also identified including wildlife and TES habitat improvement completed under forest management projects. To evaluate the effects described above, estimated road miles suspended and road work purpose were compared among alternatives. The limitations of these estimates for analysis purposes have been described.

Wildlife. Whenever roads are constructed, habitat modifications and changes in animal behavior may occur that cause changes in population viability and distribution. Large mammals, such as grizzly bears, often avoid roads, particularly those with a lot of traffic and other human use. In landscapes with high average road density, individual blocks of land with low-road densities may provide the most suitable or only habitat for some wildlife species.

Roads and associated access activities cause a wide variety of impacts on wildlife populations including migration disruption, increased physiological stress, direct habitat loss, and habitat fragmentation. Roads into forest interiors can create corridors for predator introduction and access that can affect wildlife populations by increasing opportunities for illegal harvest of wildlife species.

Although millions of animals are hit and killed by motor vehicles annually, only a few populations of species in North America are appreciably reduced by this type of direct mortality on Forest Service roads. Because most national forest roads are not designed for high-speed travel, direct mortality of wildlife species on these roads is not usually an important factor for large mammals. Direct mortality may be of greater consequence to small, slow-moving species, such as amphibians, that have highly restricted home ranges and engage in persistent migratory behavior.

Many NFS roads are constructed primarily to harvest timber. Although vegetative-stand treatments for timber harvest can be designed to benefit wildlife species, they have generally been conducted for commodity production. In such cases, a variety of detrimental effects, in addition to those directly

associated with roads, frequently occur. Examples include widespread habitat loss and increased fragmentation of forested landscapes.

An estimated 29 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction benefitting wildlife could be suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands. In comparison, 357 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction benefitting wildlife is estimated on all NFS lands. Less than 8% of road miles for projects benefitting wildlife could be suspended. For example, projects which would be suspended that benefit wildlife, may include controlled burns to improve wild turkey and elk habitat.

Fish. Road density, design, location, maintenance, and use are important factors affecting the health of aquatic ecosystems. Seldom can roads be constructed or reconstructed without any effect on streams (Furniss et al. 1991). The effects of roads on aquatic habitats include physical alterations in stream-channel morphology and substrate composition, increased sediment loading, stream-bank destabilization, changes in riparian conditions, woody debris recruitment, modification of streamflow and temperature regimes, alteration of watershed hydrologic response, isolation of streams from floodplains, and habitat fragmentation. Increased fishing access from roads may also provide greater opportunity for illegal harvest of fish or aquatic species. Construction and use of roads can potentially impact fish during all life stages. For instance, roads can impede migration of adults to spawning areas and cause mortality of eggs and fry through increased sedimentation in stream gravels.

Analysis done for the ICBEMP (Quigley 1996) suggests that strong fish populations are associated with areas of low-road density. Supplemental analysis shows that increasing road densities and their effects are associated with declines in the status of 4 non-anadromous salmonid species. Although unroaded areas are more likely than areas with roads to support strong fish populations, strong populations are not excluded from watersheds with roads. However, road entry into unroaded areas generally presents short- and long-term risks to aquatic ecosystems.

Many NFS roads are constructed or reconstructed primarily for timber harvest. Timber harvest can affect fisheries in a variety of ways to include up-slope erosion processes and in-stream sediment dynamics. Potential effects include changes in timing or magnitude of runoff events, stream-bank destabilization, reduction in stream shading, changes in thermal regimes, reduction in woody debris recruitment, increases in sediment supply and storage, and changes in channel morphology (Chamberlain et al. 1991). These effects are generally thought to degrade aquatic habitat and reduce population viability.

An estimated 1 mile of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction benefitting fisheries could be suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands. In comparison, 18 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction benefitting fisheries are estimated on all NFS lands. Less than 6% of the road miles for projects benefitting fisheries would be suspended. For example, projects which would be suspended that benefit fish may include vegetative stand treatments designed to improve riparian habitat.

Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive Species. Roads affect TES species through fragmentation, degradation, or loss of habitat, introduction of exotics, interspecific interactions (e.g., disease, predation, and competition), increased human disturbance, and illegal hunting. Roads in otherwise large natural patches of vegetation, riparian areas, major wildlife corridors, areas with unique habitats, or habitats

with rare species have greater effects than roads in other areas (Forman et al. 1997). Additionally, roads can effect distances many times their actual width.

Flather et al. (1994) provides an overview of species endangerment patterns in the United States. Habitat loss associated with land-use intensification was the most important factor in species endangerment, affecting more than 95% of the 667 species included in the overview. Interspecific interactions, particularly those associated with introduced species, adversely affected more than 50% of the species. Human overuse, specifically harvest, collection, or commercial species trade was the third most frequent factor contributing to species endangerment. Other important factors contributing to species endangerment include grazing, predation, forest management, and environmental contaminants and pollutants. Many factors that Flather (1994) identifies are directly linked to roads and the activities associated with road access.

An assessment of Federally listed T&E species occupancy in RARE II areas suggests that unroaded areas of NFS lands have an occurrence of T&E species ranging from 21% in Region 8 (Southern) to 93% in Region 6 (Pacific Northwest) (table 8). Although not included in the occupancy assessment, sensitive species also occur frequently in unroaded areas. Because of the high occurrence of TES species in unroaded areas, Forest Service management practices in unroaded areas of NFS lands and their subsequent effects on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems are of greater consequence to TES species than non-TES species. Therefore, suspension of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction and other activities associated with road access, that degrade habitat and reduce population viability may substantially decrease risks to TES species.

An estimated 4 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction benefitting TES species could be suspended in unroaded areas of NFS lands. In comparison, 170 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction benefitting TES species are estimated on all NFS lands. Less than 3% of the road miles for projects benefitting TES species would be suspended. For example, a project which could be suspended that would benefit TES may include vegetative stand treatement to improve late seral stage stand conditions to benefit old growth dependent species such as marbled murrelet and spotted owl.

All of the fish and wildlife enhancement projects in unroaded areas of NFS lands that are dependent on permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would be suspended under all alternatives during the proposed temporary suspension. Depending on the alternative selected, all of the total TES species enhancement projects in unroaded areas of NFS lands could also be suspended.

However, the overall effect of suspending these projects is minimal since the majority of projects designed to benefit wildlife, fish, and TES species are estimated to be outside of NFS unroaded areas. The benefits of many TES enhancement projects will be realized many years after implementation, particularly for vegetative-stand treatments. An 18-month suspension in implementation of these projects will likely be of little consequence to overall habitat quality and species viability. Because the effect is expected to be minimal, the following comparison of alternatives focuses on the reduced risk to wildlife, fish, and TES species that could occur as a result of the suspension.

Alternative 1 - Current management. This alternative provides the least assurance that rare habitats, large natural patches of vegetation, riparian areas, and major wildlife dispersal corridors will be retained. An estimated 534 miles of temporary and permanent road construction and reconstruction would be implemented. Reduced risks to species and their habitats that would occur where road construction and reconstruction is suspended would not occur under this alternative.

Alternative 2 - RARE II with exemptions. Under this alternative, 207 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction and 124 MMBF of timber associated with non-wildlife, fish, and TES species enhancement projects in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be suspended. This alternative would suspend the least amount of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles; therefore, risk to wildlife, fish, and TES species would be higher than under alternatives 3 through 6.

Alternative 3 - Proposed action. Under this alternative, 243 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction and 159 MMBF of timber associated with non-wildlife, fish, and TES species enhancement projects in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be suspended. This alternative would maintain more habitat in unroaded condition than alternative 2; therefore, risk to wildlife, fish, and TES species would be less than under alternative 2.

Alternative 4 - Broadest safeguards. Under this alternative, 461 miles of temporary permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction and 327 MMBF of timber associated with non-wildlife, fish, and TES species enhancement projects in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be suspended. This is the most suspension miles under any alternative. This alternative would retain the greatest amount of land in an unroaded condition; therefore, risk to wildlife, fish, and TES species would be less than under any other alternative.

Alternative 5 - RARE II without exemptions. Under this alternative, 401 miles of temporary road construction and reconstruction and 256 MMBF of timber associated with non-fish, wildlife, and TES species enhancement projects in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be suspended. Road-related risk to wildlife, fish, and TES species under this alternative would be less than under all alternatives except alternative 4.

Alternative 6 - Preferred alternative. Under this alternative, 262 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction and 170 MMBF of timber associated projects in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be suspended. These projects are not wildlife, fish, and TES enhancement projects. Road-related risk to wildlife, fish, and TES under this alternative would be greater than under alternatives 4 and 5 but less than under alternatives 2 and 3.

Demand for natural resources, such as recreation opportunities, wood products, and special forest products, has steadily increased. Forest development roads are accessed to contribute to the supply of these resources and for movement and distribution of people. Concurrent with the demand for more natural resource products is the growing public recognition that NFS lands contain unique resources and opportunities that may be negatively impacted by roads.

In towns adjacent to NFS lands, community well-being may be affected by economic and social factors related to NFS land management. Permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction contributes to the health of a community by providing expanded employment, trade, and communication opportunities. Market goods, such as timber, special forest products, livestock grazing, mineral leases, and commercial recreation, generate income for local economies. Unique ecosystems and habitats, outdoor recreation, scenic quality, and a sense of place are attributes and activities valued primarily for their social, psychological, and cultural significance. These less tangible values are often negatively impacted by roads.

Economic Effects. Two economic effects are considered when assessing the proposed temporary suspension. First, the effect on the economic values that focus on the changes in forest outputs and services valued by society. These effects are described qualitatively in the following section because most are not measurable as physical or monetary impacts. Generally, values that are enhanced by access (e.g., timber harvest) would be negatively affected by the proposed temporary suspension, while values that are enhanced by limiting access (e.g., primitive nonmotorized recreation experiences) would be positively affected.

The second economic effect considered when assessing the impact of the proposed temporary suspension concerns jobs and revenues. The only quantitative impacts estimated were the result of reduced timber harvest. Other uses that generate jobs and revenues are expected to be negligibly impacted or enhanced.

Economic Values. Ideally, the effects on economic values would be captured in a benefit-cost framework. However, most of the effects are difficult to measure quantitatively because the broad scale of the analysis precludes collection of site-specific data outputs, and the direct relationship between road miles and output and service effects is not well understood. However, it is possible to describe the direction of the effects on economic values that are likely to occur during the proposed temporary suspension. Use values are associated with resource interaction and include all commodity values and recreation values. Passive-use values are from appreciation of the resource without any interaction and include existence value, bequest value, and option value.

Alternative 1 - Current management. Under this alternative, a variety of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction projects would provide commodity outputs in the form of timber, range forage, mineral production, special forest products, and a variety of special uses. Recreation use is also expected to increase. Passive-use values are associated with healthy forest ecosystems and are often linked to unique environments such as Wilderness Areas, old-growth forest, and endangered species.

Alternatives 2 through 6. Without quantitative estimates, the differences between these alternatives is based on the number of road miles suspended. Commodity uses are usually heavily dependent on road access. Therefore, suspension of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would negatively affect these uses. The amount of the effect will likely increase in direct proportion to the number of miles suspended. The effect of the proposed temporary suspension on range, minerals, and special uses would be negligible under these alternatives. Therefore, the only measured commodity effect would be on timber harvest volume.

Timber harvest effects are described in the forest management and timber section. Harvest reductions range from 113 to 527 MMBF, which is 2% to 10% of the projected total harvest level on all NFS lands. Most potential effects would occur in alternative 4, which has the highest potential timber harvest foregone. Some of the harvest foregone on NFS lands would be provided from other sources, which results in no-net social loss.

Permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction costs are often a large portion of total harvest cost, particularly in unroaded areas of NFS lands (table 9). To calculate the net benefits of the reduced harvest, the harvest cost must be included. To access the equivalent amount of timber, approximately 4 times more miles of new road construction inside an unroaded area is required than in an area with existing roads. The average national cost of road building to access timber in areas affected by the proposed temporary suspension would be about $1.89per thousand board feet higher than for unaffected timber sales. However, this amount varies widely by region. In Regions 2, 8, and 9, road costs per thousand board feet are actually lower in unroaded areas of NFS lands, while they are higher in Regions 1, 4, 5, and 6. Region 10 road costs depend on the degree of bridge work required for access more than on available road networks.

Table 9. Permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction costs.

^a Values in million board feet.
^b Values in miles.
^c Values in thousand board feet.

Recreation use is highly associated with roads. Roads provide access to a variety of recreation opportunities, which could help meet some increasing demands for new or better roads or help in dispersing recreation use more evenly over the forest environment to reduce environmental effects. Under all alternatives, permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles suspended for recreation purposes would be minor (1 to 15 miles). However, recreationists use all types of roads. Limiting road development would limit the potential for new recreation access, which would have a negative affect on potential recreation benefits. Alternatives 4 and 5 have the highest road miles suspended and would have the most effect on roaded recreation use.

Some types of recreation use would be positively affected by the proposed temporary suspension. All alternatives would maintain recreation opportunities for low-density recreation in primitive and semi-primitive nonmotorized recreation environment and protect scenic quality. Alternatives 4 and 5 would offer the most protection to these benefits.

Wildlife-associated recreation can be negatively and positively effected by the proposed temporary suspension. Permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction has negative effects on water quality, fish habitat, and biological diversity. Therefore, the proposed temporary suspension would protect environmental quality, which is a key factor in the quality of the wildlife-associated recreation experience. However, recreationists also require access to pursue these activities, and managers require access to maintain or improve habitat quality.

It is impossible to determine which mix of recreation opportunities is the most beneficial to society in the absence of estimates of the effect of road suspension on different types of recreation use. However, during the 18-month suspension period it would be unlikely that either the potential positive nor negative effects would be large.

Passive-use values are derived from motivations to protect environmental values either for personal satisfaction or for future generations. These values are not traded in markets nor subject to fees. Passive-use values are likely to be positively affected under all alternatives that limit road development because these values are most often linked to protection of ecological values, TES species, and biological diversity. The only possible negative aspect of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction suspension for passive-use values is the limitations on management actions designed to protect ecological integrity. Passive-use values would be higher under all alternatives in comparison to alternative 1. These values would likely be highest under alternatives 4 and 5 and lowest under alternatives 2 and 3.

Economic Impacts. In addition to balancing the benefits and costs to the public, the Forest Service considers the impacts of its policies on economic activity. Activities on NFS lands generate jobs in local communities and revenue to States, which is distributed to local communities. Jobs are created by commodity extraction, recreation use, and special uses. Payments-to-states are from receipts generated through a variety of programs.

The only commodity impact from the proposed temporary suspension is on timber harvest. Job and revenue impacts from minerals, grazing, recreation, and other special uses were estimated to be unchanged from the current management situation under alternatives 2 through 6.

The timber volume potentially affected by the proposed temporary suspension is described in the Forest Management and Timber section. Reduced harvest on NFS lands can be offset by increased harvest on other lands. Non-national forest substitution factors ranged from 0% (Regions 3, 5, 6, and 10) to 90% (Regions 8 and 9), as shown in Appendix D. Direct job effects were estimated for the volume that would not be available from other ownerships.

The potential harvest was assumed to be removed over 3 years. Job effects are shown on a per year basis and are assumed to occur in each of the 3 years. Direct jobs effects were estimated using a regional average for direct jobs per million board feet harvested (Appendix D). The job effects of each alternative can be compared to the estimated total direct jobs associated with the 18-month planned program of 5.4 billion board feet.

The relationship of direct timber jobs to harvest levels is fairly stable across a region. Indirect and induced effects can vary widely between communities in a region. The effects of the proposed temporary suspension are not evenly distributed across national forests within a region. Therefore, regional average job effects for indirect and induced impacts are difficult to estimate with any confidence. Similar impact analysis suggests that direct job effects are between 50% and 60% of total job effects (Olson, Douglas C. 1990).

Local communities with less economic diversity and a strong timber-related sector will be most impacted. Conversely, local communities with more diverse economies are likely to have other economic sectors that can substitute for potential job losses related to indirect and induced effects.

Payments-to-states are estimated to be 25% of total receipts. Receipts per million board feet were estimated by region using 1997 Timber Sale Program Information Reporting System (TSPIRS) data. For a complete description of effects by region and alternative see Appendix D.

Alternative 1 - Current management. Timber related jobs and associated payments-to-states would be unaffected under this alternative. Estimated timber volume sold during the 18-month suspension period would be 5,439 MMBF (ranging from 152 MMBF in Region 3 to 1464 MMBF in Region 6). The associated permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles (8,948) on all NFS lands for vegetation management would be unaffected. Approximately 375 MMBF associated with 365 miles are estimated to be in unroaded areas of NFS lands. On an annual basis, 29,413 direct jobs would be associated with the planned harvest volume. In addition, an estimated 29,700 indirect and induced jobs would be associated with the planned harvest volume.

Alternatives 2 through 6. The potential timber harvest is affected under each of the alternatives. Harvest impacts range from a low of 113 to 165 MMBF (alternative 2) to a high of 305 to 527 MMBF (alternative 4). Since jobs and payments-to-states are directly proportional to harvest level, alternatives 2 and 4 also have the highest and lowest economic effects.

Alternative 2 could affect between 210 to 320 direct timber jobs per year over 3 years. The estimated potential effect on payments-to-states ranges from $4 to $6 million. Regions 1 and 4 account for approximately 80% of the job impacts and about 60% of the payments-to-states under alternative 2.

Alternative 4 would affect between 510 and 790 direct timber jobs per year. The estimated potential effect on payments-to-states ranges from $8 to $16 million. Regions 1 and 10 would account for about half of the affected jobs under this alternative. However, Region 6 would have the second highest loss in payments-to-states because of their higher value per board foot.

Alternatives 3, 5, and 6 are within the high and low range defined by alternatives 2 and 4. Regions 1 and 4 would have a larger proportion of the impacts because a relatively larger share of their estimated timber sales would be within areas affected by the proposed temporary suspension. Region 10 would be affected only under alternatives 4 and 5. No timber harvest would be forgone due to permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction suspension in any other alternative. Job impacts in Regions 8 and 9 would be affected minimally because 90% of the harvest volume is assumed to be substituted on other lands in those regions. However, the potential impact on payments-to-states in Region 8 could be substantial because of the high estimated harvest volume. Harvest from non-NFS lands does not replace that source of revenue to the States, although substitute harvest would produce other forms of State revenue.

Although alternatives 2 through 6 would result in some loss of State revenue from payments-to-states, these losses could be mitigated by requirements of the 1998 Supplemental Appropriation Act. It is impossible to estimate the extent of the mitigation until implementation guidelines are established.

Social Values. Recent national surveys have found that a majority of the American public supports environmental protection and believes environmental issues should be a high social priority (Ladd and Bowman 1995). Literature suggests that healthy forest ecosystems contribute substantial value because they provide unique benefits such as solitude, clean water, diversity of wildlife and fish, and old growth, as well as forest products for human use (Fan and Bengston 1997). These values are important to people for a variety of reasons such as the satisfaction associated with knowing that resources exist, assurance that these resources will exist for future generations, and protection of future options for use of these resources (Vincent et al. 1995).

Environmental values associated with the proposed temporary suspension may be heightened or reduced by the perceived scenic quality, place attachment, and social well-being that people derive from a site. These perceptions are affected by the presence or absence of roads. Roads allow human access to many types of scenic areas. However, if the roads interfere with a view or permit a level of human density that reduces the quality of the view, then they diminish scenic quality.

People feel connected to certain places for a variety of psychological and cultural reasons (Williams et al. 1992, Williams and Carr 1993). Although roads allow access to these significant places, they may add to or detract from the attachment to special places if they interfere with characteristics associated with the attachment. The proposed temporary suspension would not affect place attachment, since current access would not be diminished.

Social well-being is associated with scenic quality, place attachment, economic factors, and quality of social relationships (Richardson and Christensen 1997). If the proposed temporary suspension affects any of these factors, perceptions of social well-being could be affected.

Effects on human values associated with scenic quality and place attachment are greatest under alternatives 1, 2, 3, and 6 where the most projects and potentially the most landscape change would occur. Alternatives 4 and 5 suspend the most projects, resulting in less landscape change. Impacts on

social well-being are highly dependent on cultural background, personal history, and a complex mix of other socioeconomic factors. Alternatives 2 through 6 may impact the social well-being of individuals, families, or groups. However, at the community scale or higher, overall trends in social well-being would be unaffected by the proposed temporary suspension.

Alternative 1 - Current management. If increased permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction indicates a high potential for modifying landscapes, then scenic quality, place attachment, and social well-being are affected the greatest under this alternative.

Alternatives 2 and 3. Under these alternatives, 2% (alternative 2 = 207 miles, alternative 3 = 243 miles) of the total permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be suspended; most permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would proceed. The potential for landscape change affecting scenic quality, place attachment, and social well-being is similar to alternative 1. Region 4 (alternative 2 = 42 miles, alternative 3 = 42 miles) and Region 8 (alternatives 2 and 3 = 76 miles) have the most road miles suspended under these alternatives and thus, would have the most potential for maintaining unmodified landscapes.

Alternative 4 - Broadest safeguards. Under this alternative, 5% (461 miles) of the total permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be suspended; fewer permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would proceed. This would result in decreased potential impacts on scenic quality, place attachment, and social well-being. However, these reduced impacts are minimal because only 5% of the total permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be affected. Region 8 (91 miles) and Region 10 (161 miles) would have the most road miles suspended under this alternative and thus, would have the most potential for maintaining unmodified landscapes.

Alternative 5 - RARE II without exemptions. Under this alternative, 4% (401 miles) of the total permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be suspended. Effects to scenic quality, place attachment, and social well-being are similar to alternative 4. Region 8 (91 miles) and Region 10 (161 miles) would have the most road miles suspended under this alternative and thus, would have the most potential for maintaining unmodified landscapes.

Alternative 6 - Preferred alternative. Under this alternative, 3% (262 miles) of the total permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be suspended; most permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would proceed. The potential for landscape change affecting scenic quality, place attachment, and social well-being is similar to alternative 1. Region 4 (45 miles) and Region 8 (86 miles) would have the most road miles suspended under this alternative and thus, would have the most potential for maintaining unmodified landscapes.

Community Capacity. Community capacity is a community's ability to sustain itself over time based primarily on the community's economic health measures and the quality of social interactions and institutions (Beckley 1995, Flora and Flora 1993, Henton et al. 1997). The more diverse a community's economy, the more resilient and adaptable it is to changing circumstances (Ashton and Pickens 1995). Communities that are economically diverse and have high levels of civic engagement and broad social networks are better able to withstand changing circumstances (Potapchuk et al. 1997).

The Forest Service contributes to community capacity as a community member, government-to-government partner, and neighbor. Interactions between the Forest Service and communities are maintained through formal and informal contact primarily surrounding natural resource interests (i.e., planning processes), exchange of goods and services (e.g., permits, contracts, payment-in-lieu of taxes, law enforcement, fire protection, etc.), and other trust-building activities. To the extent that the proposed temporary suspension responds to the demands for change, relationships and trust levels with community interests that oppose permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction may be improved. To the extent that the proposed temporary suspension responds to an interest in maintaining the status quo, relationships and trust levels with community interests that want permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction may be reduced. Suspending estimated projects could have an small impact on the Forest Service's community relationships and trust levels. Effects on community capacity under alternatives 2 through 6 are minimal and localized.

Alternative 1 - Current management. An expectation for change has developed in some communities as a result of the proposed interim rule. To the extent that community interests oppose permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction, demand for change has not been evident therefore relationships and trust levels may be reduced if an action relative to suspension is not implemented. To the extent that community interests had a desire for no change from current management, relationships and trust levels may be improved.

Alternative 2 - RARE II with exemptions. Under this alternative, projects associated with 2% (207 miles) of total permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be suspended. If road miles suspended is an indication of projects suspended and thus, a measure of the quality of relationships between the Forest Service and project-associated community interests, this alternative would minimally impede projects and minimally impact relationships with these interests. Similarly, agency relationships with community interests that oppose permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would be minimally impacted because few projects would be suspended. Localized effects are greatest in Region 4 (42 miles) and Region 8 (76 miles), which have the most road miles suspended under this alternative.

Alternative 3 - Proposed action. Under this alternative, projects associated with 3% (243 miles) of total permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be suspended. Impacts of this alternative on agency-community interests are similar to alternative 2. Localized effects are most in Region 4 (42 miles) and Region 8 (76 miles), which have the most road miles suspended under this alternative.

Alternative 4 - Broadest safeguards. Under this alternative, projects associated with 5% (461 miles) of total permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be suspended. If road miles suspended is an indication of projects suspended and thus, a measure of the quality of relationships between the Forest Service and project-associated community interests, this alternative would prevent the most projects from proceeding. However, because this is still a small percent of total permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction in unroaded areas of NFS lands, this alternative would minimally impact relationships with these interests. Agency relationships with community interests that oppose permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction would improve the most under this alternative. However, because this is still a small percent of total permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction in unroaded areas of NFS lands, this alternative would have only a minimal impact on relationships with these interests. Localized effects are most in Region 8 (91 miles) and Region 10 (161 miles), which have the most road miles suspended under this alternative.

Alternative 5 - RARE II without exemptions. Under this alternative, projects associated with 4% (401 miles) of total permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be suspended. Impacts of this alternative on community interests are similar to alternative 4. Localized effects are most in Region 8 (91 miles) and Region 10 (161 miles), which have the most road miles suspended under this alternative.

Alternative 6 - Preferred alternative. Under this alternative, projects associated with 3% (262 miles) of total permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles in unroaded areas of NFS lands would be suspended. Impacts of this alternative on community interests are similar to alternatives 2 and 3. Localized effects are most in Region 4 (45 miles) and Region 8 (86 miles), which have the most road miles suspended under this alternative.

Environmental Justice. Executive Order 12898, Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations requires that identifying and addressing disproportionately high and adverse human health and environmental effects on minority and low-income populations from Federal programs, policies, and activities be part of the mission of all Federal agencies. None of the alternatives pose disproportionately high adverse health or environmental effects on minority or low-income populations. Some local communities, primarily rural, may be more disproportionately impacted economically than other communities because of reduced timber sales and other projects that would be temporarily suspended. However, these communities would not incur increased human health or environmental risks from the proposed temporary suspension. Any disproportionately high and adverse human health and environmental effects associated with a specific project would be addressed when the project is estimated.

Cumulative Effects

Nationwide, in the context of the accumulated body of scientific information about the benefits and environmental impacts of roads, a holistic approach has influenced a change in the use of the national forest resources for management of the forest road system. A high priority for the Forest Service is an emphasis on healthy watersheds, it is one of the most critical of the many issues facing the FS.

The analysis contained in this EA contributes to our understanding of the ecological and social impacts from roads in unroaded areas, whether viewed from the nation-wide, policy level to the project level where on-the-ground activity takes place. These impacts must be viewed over a long period of time. Some change may take years or decades for the effects of a management change to be noticeable.

The estimates used in this EA are the most accurate information available on permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction miles on all NFS lands at this time. However, these estimates are for purposes of this analysis only and should not be used regarding effects on any specific national forest. The 18-month suspension period does not assume a start or end date. There are approximately 8,948 miles of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction estimated on all NFS lands during the 18-month suspension period, which would produce the largest number and magnitude of physical and biological effects on wildlife, fisheries, TES species and their habitats, solitude and watershed and air resources. These roads also contribute to economic and social effects such as recreational enjoyment and production of goods and services.

The effect of the proposed temporary suspension on physical and biological resources would be small under all alternatives and affect primarily wildlife, fisheries, TES species and their habitats, solitude, and watershed and air resources. The suspension ensures that the unique qualities within NFS unroaded areas will not be altered by road construction and reconstruction before a management strategy can be developed to minimize or eliminate any adverse environmental effects. Thus, the effects of the proposed temporary suspension on retaining wildlife, fisheries, TES species and their habitats solitude, and watershed, and air resources will be short term. The strategy for addressing long-term effects will result from the subsequent adoption of a revised road management policy and use of the analytical tools being developed as part of the road management strategy. The new and improved analytical tools will help identify and analyze any adverse environmental effects from permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction for future projects, thus ensuring that cumulative effects will be considered in future analyses.

The most tangible social and economic cumulative effects, is an incremental decline in timber harvest resulting from the rule added to declines in timber harvesting from NFS lands over the last 10 years.

Declining timber volume from NFS lands is recognized in the environmental assessment (table 6). Some cumulative effects, primarily those associated with timber harvest, will occur as an indirect result of suspending road construction and reconstruction. Suspension of permanent and temporary road construction and reconstruction, and the resulting loss of timber volume offered for sale under the various alternatives is based on an estimated 5.44 billion board feet during an 18-month period. The suspension alternatives range from a low of 124 MMBF in alternative 2 to a high of 564 MMBF in alternative 4. The preferred alternative could effect the sale offering of approximately 170 to 260 MMBF.

The suspension alternatives are estimated to reduce annual employment nationwide by 210 to 790 jobs in the short-term. Provisions of the 1998 Supplemental Appropriations Rescission Act (PL 105-174) will, to some extent, compensate for shortfalls in payments-to-states from revenues generated on NFS lands.

Analysis indicates a reduction in payments-to-states from a low of $4 million in alternative 2 to a high of $16 million in alternative 4. The preferred alternative indicates a range of $6 to $8 million reduction in payments-to-states. These estimates are uncertain and depend on possible changes in planning priorities, budgets, and the timing of implementing projects on-the-ground. This lost revenue is substantially less than $100 million and will not significantly compromise productivity, competition, employment, the environment, public health or safety, or State and local governments.

Other efforts examined include the ICRB, the national forests in the Sierra Nevada affected by the California spotted owl and its habitat (Cal-Owl), the Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project (SNEP), the Southwestern Region EIS, and the NWFP. Timber harvest in the ICRB accounts for 10% of total United States harvest. The harvest in the area has declined by 7% since 1986 and is expected to decline another 5% by the end of the decade. In recent years, the number of timber jobs in Idaho and Montana has declined due to technological improvements; no such trend exists for eastern Oregon and Washington (An Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins, Vol. 1, Timber, p.86).

Generally, the timber volume has decreased from 1987 to 1995, reflecting the shift toward less intensive management practices on NFS lands in the Sierra Nevada affected by the California spotted owl and its

habitat (Revised Draft EIS, Managing California Spotted Owl Habitat in the Sierra Nevada National Forests of California, an Ecosystem Approach, p. 3-163). Similarly, jobs and income associated with the Southwestern Region timber harvest program declined sharply between 1989 and 1994 (Final EIS for Amendment of Forest Plans, Southwestern Region, p. 32). Historically, restricted timber harvest in the range of the northern spotted owl resulted in substantial social and economic costs. Timber-based employment would decline under the NWFP as a result of reduced timber harvests (Final Supplemental EIS on Management of Habitat for Late Successional and Old-Growth Forest Related Species within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl, Volume 1, pp. S-21 to 23).

While the NWFP is exempt under the preferred alternative, the anticipated changes resulting from a decision in response to the Cal-Owl reports and the SNEP, are uncertain. In a comparison between of the annual suspended harvest effects and the projected NFS harvest in the ICRB, SNEP, and Cal-Owl during the proposed temporary suspension, the effects were found to be small. A 2% to 4% decrease in the projected total harvest level is estimated under the preferred alternative.

Sufficient opportunity exists to substitute timber, primarily softwoods, from other ownerships to replace most of the reduction in national forest timber sales in the eastern United States. In the West, substitution opportunity is limited. Substitution factors range from 0% (Regions 3, 5, 6, and 10) to 90% (Regions 8 and 9), as shown in Appendix D. Any volume that could not be substituted from other United States ownerships could probably be met by Canadian imports. The magnitude of the impact to Canada is small without a noticeable change in total number of imports from Canada; therefore, the effect to the Canadian environment is insignificant.

Following publication of the proposed interim rule (63 FR 4351), Robert Joslin, Deputy Chief for the NFS, sent a letter to Jamie Clark, Director of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and Rolland Schmitten, Assistant Administrator for Fisheries NOAA-National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), requesting technical assistance to develop alternatives and to ensure that concerns about T&E species are considered.

The FWS and NMFS have assisted in developing the wildlife, fisheries, and threatened, endangered and Forest Service sensitive (TES) species portions of the EA. Specifically, biologists from the NMFS and the FWS provided input on the types and level of analyses to complete in the wildlife, fish, and TES portion of the EA. Additionally, the NMFS and the FWS provided input during development of the Biological Assessment/Biological Evaluation (BA/BE). The scope and scale of effects to be considered in the BA/BE and a probable determination of the effect of the proposed temporary suspension were discussed.

On August 27, 1998, a letter transmitting the BA/BE was sent from Eurial E. Turner, Acting Deputy Chief for the NFS to Jamie Clark and Rolland Schmitten. The letter requested the FWS and the NMFS concurrence in the conclusion that adoption of the preferred alternative would not produce significant impacts. The FWS and the NMFS have concurred with the Forests Service determination of effects. Site-specific projects will be preceded by biological evaluations where listed species may be affected.

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