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Wildland Firefighter Health & Safety Report

Issue No. 9

Risk Management
Vitamin and Mineral Requirements

Vitamin and mineral needs depend on the level of energy expenditure. The energy expenditure of wildland firefighting is two to three times higher than the expenditure of the typical individual (up to 6,000 kilocalories per day for firefighters compared to 2,000 kilocalories per day for the typical individual).

Vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and immune-friendly foods can be obtained by increasing caloric intake to match energy expenditure, by eating a variety of foods, and by eating enough servings of fruits, vegetables, and whole-grain products. Under the old U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture dietary guidelines, less active individuals were encouraged to eat two servings of fruits and three servings of vegetables daily. New (2005) guidelines call for everyone to eat four servings of fruit and five servings of vegetables daily. Firefighters should eat even more (see the Field Notes section).

Firefighters should begin deployment with a sound nutritional base.

Military studies demonstrate the need to begin an arduous deployment with a sound nutritional base. The Committee on Military Nutrition Research recommends that, whenever possible, individuals who have lost significant lean body mass should not be deployed until they regain the lean mass. Maintenance of body weight is a simple indicator of nutritional status. Loss of weight and lean tissue are signs of an energy imbalance. Failure to restore energy balance will harm physical performance and immune function and could open the door to upper respiratory infections and other illnesses.

Vitamins

Why are vitamins, which do not supply energy and are needed in the tiniest quantities, essential for life? In many cases, the answer lies in vitamins’ role as enzymes needed for cellular metabolism. For example, vitamin B1 (thiamin) is a coenzyme that removes carbon dioxide in a metabolic pathway. Without the vitamin, the metabolic pathway grinds to a halt, and intermediary compounds build up. Chronic lack of vitamin B1 leads to a vitamin deficiency characterized by weakness, wasting, and nerve damage (beriberi). Fortunately, the small amounts of vitamins needed are readily available from a variety of foods in a well-balanced diet. Doses that exceed the DRI (megadoses) do not improve function or performance, and they may be toxic.

Vitamins in food have proven more effective than vitamin supplements.

Vitamins are classified according to their solubility. Fat-soluble vitamins are ingested with fats in the diet. Water-soluble vitamins are found in a wide variety of foods. While excess water-soluble vitamins can be eliminated in the urine, excess fat-soluble vitamins may accumulate, sometimes to toxic levels. High doses of some water-soluble vitamins (B6 and C) also have been shown to be toxic. Table 1 lists the vitamins, their daily reference intakes for adults, important functions, and foods that are sources of these vitamins.

Table 1-The recommended dietary reference intake of vitamins for adults, their functions, and their sources in the diet. References to greens mean dark leafy greens. Grains mean whole grains. The abbreviation mg means milligrams per day, and the abbreviation µg means micrograms per day.
Vitamins Dietary reference intake (female/male) Functions Sources
Fat Soluble
A (retinal) 700/900 µg Vision, immune function Milk products, liver, eggs
D 5 µg Bones, teeth Sunlight, eggs, fish, milk
E 15 mg Antioxidant Vegetable oils, nuts, greens
K 90/120 µg Blood clotting Greens, milk, meats
Water Soluble
Beta carotene 3 mg Cell growth, antioxidant Fruits, vegetables
B1 (thiamin) 1.1/1.2 mg Energy production Pork, grains, legumes, nuts
B2 (riboflavin) 1.1/1.3 mg Energy production Milk, shellfish, meat, greens, grains
Niacin 14/16 mg Energy production Nuts, fish, poultry, grains, milk, eggs
B6 (pyridoxine) 1.3 mg Energy and protein metabolism Meats, grains, vegetables, fruits, fish, poultry
Folate 400 µg Red/white blood cells, RNA, DNA, amino acids Vegetables, grains, legumes
Bs 2.4 µg Blood cells, RNA, DNA, energy Meat, fish, poultry, milk, eggs
Biotin 30 µg Fat and amino acid metabolism, glycogen synthesis Eggs, soybeans, fish, grains
C (ascorbic acid) 75/90 mg Healing, immune function, antioxidant, connective tissue Citrus fruits, strawberries, cantaloup, greens

[photo] Firefighter gazing at a wilfire.

Minerals

Minerals are important for enzymes and cellular activity, for some hormones, for bones, for muscle and nerve activity, and for acid-base balance. Minerals are available in many food sources, but concentrations are higher in animal tissues.

Excess intake of mineral supplements can pose problems, including diarrhea (magnesium, zinc), high blood pressure (sodium), or liver damage (iron). Mineral and vitamin supplements should not exceed the DRI (table 2).

Table 2-The recommended dietary reference intake of minerals for adults, their functions, and their sources in the diet. References to greens mean dark leafy greens. Grains mean whole grains. The abbreviation mg means milligrams per day, and the abbreviation µg means micrograms per day.
Minerals Dietary Reference Intakes (female/males) Functions Sources
Calcium 1,000 mg Bones, teeth, blood clotting, muscle and nerve function Milk, tofu, broccoli, legumes
Chloride 2,300 mg Digestion, fluid balance Salt (in foods)
Chromium 25/35 µg Energy metabolism Grains, meats, vegetable oils
Copper 900 µg Iron metabolism Seafood, nuts, grains
Fluorine 3/4 mg Bones, teeth Water, seafood, tea
Iodine 150 µg Thyroid hormone Seafood, milk, iodized salt
Iron 18/8 mg Oxygen transport Meats, legumes, dried fruit
Magnesium 320/420 mg Protein synthesis, muscle and nerve function Grains, nuts, legumes, seafood, chocolate
Manganese 1.8/2.3 mg Energy metabolism Nuts, grains, tea, leafy vegetables
Molybdenum 45 µg Enzymes Organ meats, legumes, cereals
Phosphorus 700 mg Bones, teeth, acid/base balance Milk, meats, poultry, fish, eggs
Potassium 4,700 mg Nerves and muscles, fluid and acid/base balance Meats, milk, fruits, vegetables, grains, coffee
Selenium 55 µg Antioxidant Seafood, meats, grains
Sodium 1,500 mg Nerve function, fluid and acid/base balance Salt (in food)
Zinc 8/11 mg Enzyme activity, wound healing Meat, poultry, fish, milk, grains, vegetables