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Figure 1—Yellow avalanche-lily in flower. Photo by Dr. Robert T. and Margaret Orr © California Academy of Sciences.

SUMMARY

Citation:
Fryer, Janet L. 2021. Erythronium grandiflorum, yellow avalanche-lily. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/forb/erigra/all.html [].

Table of Contents

• SUMMARY
• INTRODUCTION
• TAXONOMY
• SYNONYMS
• LIFE FORM
• DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
• GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
• SITE CHARACTERISTICS
• PLANT COMMUNITIES
• BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
• SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
• REGENERATION PROCESSES
• Pollination and Breeding System
• Seed Production
• Seed Dispersal
• Seed Banking
• Germination
• Seedling Establishment
• Plant Growth and Mortality
• Vegetative Reproduction and Regeneration
• SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
• FIRE ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
• IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECTS
• FIRE ADAPTATIONS AND PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE
• FUEL CHARACTERISTICS
• FIRE REGIMES
• FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
• OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
• FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS
• OTHER STATUS
• IMPORTANCE TO WILDLIFE AND LIVESTOCK
• VALUE FOR RESTORATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER USES
• ADDITIONAL MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
• MANAGEMENT UNDER A CHANGING CLIMATE
• APPENDIX
• REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION

Erythronium grandiflorum Pursh subsp. candidum Piper [58,128], white glacier-lily
Erythronium grandiflorum Pursh subsp. grandiflorum [8,58,128], yellow avalanche-lily (typical subspecies)

The subspecies apparently do not hybridize where their ranges overlap; consequently, their reassignment as distinct species has been suggested [35].

Common names are used throughout this Species Review. For scientific names of plants and animals mentioned in this review and links to other FEIS Species Reviews, see table A1 and table A2.

For Erythronium grandiflorum subsp. grandiflorum:
Erythronium grandiflorum Pursh var. chrysandrum (Applegate) Scoggan [50,99]
Erythronium grandiflorum Pursh var. grandiflorum [50,65,82,99]
Erythronium grandiflorum Pursh var. nudipetalum (Applegate) C.L. Hitchc. [50]
Erythronium grandiflorum Pursh var. pallidum H. St. John [50,99]
Erythronium grandiflorum Pursh subsp. chrysandrum Applegate (cited in [128])

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE

Figure 2—Distribution of yellow avalanche-lily. Map courtesy of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service [128] [2021, 21 June].

Yellow avalanche-lily occurs from southern British Columbia and Alberta south to northwestern California and northern New Mexico [50,57,128] (fig. 2). In the Pacific Northwest, it is abundant from Mt. Rainer to Mt. Hood—on both sides of the Cascade Range [50]—but is sparse elsewhere [90].

States and provinces:
United States: CA, CO, ID, MT, NM, OR, UT, WA, WY
Canada: BC, AB [128]

SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Yellow avalanche-lily grows on sites that have moist soil and open light in early spring [66,85,93,102,130]. These open sites include streamsides [102], avalanche tracks, rock outcrops, mountain meadows, subalpine meadows and parklands [18,82,90], krummholz [18], and alpine meadows [18,99]. Yellow avalanche-lily is favored on cool [44,85,93,104,130] to mesic [6], well-drained [78,93] sites that retain snow late into the growing season [85,93,130], such as depressions that retain moisture [102]. It is highly frost tolerant [38,39].

Yellow avalanche-lily grows in soils of various textures, depths, and parent materials. Textures including rocky [5], gravelly, sandy [56,85,122], and loamy [56] soils. Although deep soils are preferred [131], yellow avalanche-lily also grows in bedrock cracks and shallow soils [120]. Parent materials of soils supporting yellow avalanche-lily include limestone, calcareous sandstones, quartzites, and gneiss [16]. It grows in serpentine soils in the Wenatchee Mountains of Washington [25].

Yellow avalanche-lily occurs from sea level to alpine elevations [28,73,78,82,90,109] (table 1). A study on Mt. Hood found yellow avalanche-lily was positively associated with high elevations [122]. It often grows on north-facing slopes [130]; however, it may occur on any aspect if soil is moist [5]. Slope grade of sites with yellow avalanche-lily ranges from flat [102,104] to very steep [16,21,56].

PLANT COMMUNITIES
Yellow avalanche-lily is often widespread in open woodlands, grasslands, and meadows [32]. It grows in Palouse prairies [22,130] through the ponderosa pine [1,17,21,23,34,94,121] and Douglas-fir [21,23,85] belts to quaking aspen [2,45,71,86,132], fir-spruce [40,45,49,51,56,89,121], mountain hemlock [5], alpine larch [6,70], and whitebark pine [75] belts; and to subalpine [19,40,50,78,93] and alpine [16,28,78] meadows. Yellow avalanche-lily is especially abundant in wet mountain meadows [15,16,32,88,107] (fig. 3) and quaking aspen parklands [2,40,45,71,86,132] of the Rocky Mountains.

Figure 3—Yellow avalanche-lily in an Engelmann spruce parkland-subalpine meadow mosaic in Glacier National Park, Montana. Photo by Robert Potts © California Academy of Sciences.

Yellow avalanche-lily also occurs in shrublands, particularly sagebrush steppes and mountain shrublands [40,44,49]. In Washington, Oregon, and western Idaho, it grows in thimbleberry [34] and common snowberry [22,93,130] shrublands. In Utah, it grows in mountain shrublands—including Gambel oak, bigtooth maple [134], and mixed shrublands [40,134]—and in mountain big sagebrush [103] and other sagebrush communities (e.g., timberline sagebrush) [30].

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

• BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
• SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
• REGENERATION PROCESSES
• SUCCESSIONAL STATUS

Aboveground Description
Yellow avalanche-lily is a perennial herb that grows from 20 to 40 cm tall [109]. Leaves are basal, from 5 to 20 cm long [82,90]. Flowering plants bear two leaves, while nonflowering, seedling plants bear one [66]. The inflorescence is a raceme [50]; it is typically one-flowered but up to five-flowered [19,32,66] (fig. 1). Flowers are showy; they are usually yellow but are sometimes white [19]. The infrataxa are distinguished by tepal color [65]. The fruit is a capsule [32,49,82,90,134] holding 20 to 60 [66] papery seeds [90].

Belowground Description
Yellow avalanche-lily has a corm and fibrous roots. The corm is bulbous, elongated, and segmented [19,90], from 1 to 5 cm thick [8,32,134]. The corm and roots are deeply buried [40,47,72], from 8 to 25 cm below ground [130,134]. In northern Idaho, Weaver (1917) found live corms at 13- to 25-cm depths after the fires of 1910 [130].

Stand and Population Structure
Spatial distribution of yellow avalanche-lily is variable; plants sometimes grow in clusters and sometimes spaced apart. Degree of animal consumption of the corms likely plays an important role in spacing of yellow avalanche-lily plants [66,120] (see Importance to Wildlife and Livestock). On alpine sites in Colorado, yellow avalanche-lily populations were denser on sites with shallow, rocky soils than on sites with deeper, less rocky soils that northern pocket gophers could more easily dig and tunnel through to access yellow avalanche-lily corms [120]. On sites across southern British Columbia and Alberta, seedlings were nearly three times as common as adult plants [66] (see Seedling Establishment). Information on longevity of yellow avalanche-lily plants was not available.

Raunkiaer Life Form
Geophyte [91]

SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
Yellow avalanche-lily is a spring ephemeral [30], and its phenology is closely tied to date of snowmelt [116,137]. Leaves may emerge while still buried in snow [43]. Plants flower early in the growing season [32,130], usually at the edge of melting snowbanks [5,40,49,90,132]. Yellow avalanche-lily produces only two leaves before it flowers [69]. It is usually the first species to flower in any given landscape [5,49,109]. Tepals close over the anthers and stigmata on rainy or snowy days, and at night [65,66]. The typically yellow flower color fades as flowers age [49]. Plants die back in early summer [43] and overwinter as corms [20]. Seasonal development progresses very rapidly; yellow avalanche-lily may emerge, flower, fruit, and senesce within 2 weeks [69]. Table 2 shows yellow avalanche-lily phenology by area.

Pollination and Breeding System
Yellow avalanche-lily is largely cross-pollinated [20,35,52,96,118,119], although some seeds may result from self-pollination [95,96,119]. Bees, including bumble bees and miner bees, pollinate the flowers [35,52,113,118]. Bumble bees are the primary pollinators [14,66,113,115,119].

Studies in subalpine and alpine meadows on the Rocky Mountain Front of Colorado found pollen dispersal and gene flow were limited among populations; most gene flow was within populations [137].

Seed Production
Yellow avalanche-lily may flower and produce seeds in its first year [53], though this may not be typical. Yellow avalanche-lily sometimes exhibits mass blooms, turning meadows into a carpet of yellow flowers [49,65,66]. Plants on low-elevation sites may produce more flowers and seeds than plants on high-elevation sites due to decreased exposure to freezing temperatures [64], but plants at high elevations may have good fruit production in some years [113]. On the Coast Ranges of British Columbia, yellow avalanche-lilies in the alpine zone set more seeds than those at lower elevations [113]. In southern British Columbia and Alberta, density of flowering yellow avalanche-lily plants was negatively associated with conifer density and positively associated with high elevations [66].

Seed Banking
No information was available on depth of burial of yellow avalanche-lily seeds or their persistence in the soil seedbank.

Germination
Seeds are dormant upon dispersal, requiring cold and warm stratification to germinate [4,9,10,92]. Seeds in alpine zones may require up to 30 days to complete germination [4]. In the laboratory, moist-cold stratification at 8 °C resulted in 96% germination [92].

Seedling Establishment
Bare mineral soil and soil disturbance favor yellow avalanche-lily establishment [114]. In meadows of Glacier National Park, Montana, yellow avalanche-lily seedlings were more numerous and larger on recent (<5-year-old) grizzly bear digs than on adjacent, undisturbed soils [114].

Loik et. al (2004) report that seedlings establish episodically and typically, few seedlings survive past their first year [69]. On sites across southern British Columbia and Alberta, densities of one-leaved (seedling) plants were much higher than densities of two-leaved (mature) plants. Densities of one-leaved plants averaged 130.3 plants/m² and ranged from 0 to 60.7 seedlings/m², and >50% of 38 sites had >100 seedlings/m². Density of two-leaved (mature) plants averaged 28.6 plants/m², and only 6 sites had >15 mature plants/m² [66]. Although survivorship of the seedlings past their first year was not recorded, the much lower density of mature plants than seedlings suggests that most seedlings die.

Plant Growth and Mortality
Yellow avalanche-lily grows under harsh conditions early in the growing season. It is often exposed to high radiation, particularly at high elevations and/or when growing near snowbanks. This tends to maximize its rate of photosynthesis but may also result in tissue damage or plant death [38,39]. Exposure to below-freezing temperatures, particularly in the seedling stage, may result in high mortality rates [14,116] (see Management Under a Changing Climate).

Vegetative Reproduction and Regeneration
Yellow avalanche-lily sprouts annually from the corm [30,66], and after fire or other top-killing disturbances [112,130]. It may also reproduce from corm offsets [66,125], although the frequency of this was not noted in the literature. Traditionally, Native Peoples replanted the offsets after harvesting the parent corms to ensure future production of yellow avalanche-lily plants [125].

Yellow avalanche-lily may colonize and/or persist on disturbed sites (e.g., [60,66,114]), and it may colonize sites in primary succession (e.g., scoured avalanche chutes). For example, a fireweed-yellow avalanche-lily community formed in the Mount St. Helens blast zone within 3 years of the 1980 eruption [79,80]. Regular digging and upheaval of the soil by grizzly bears and rodents searching for yellow avalanche-lily corms delays meadow succession. This favors surviving yellow avalanche-lily [60,66,114]; in part, by increasing soil fertility. In Glacier National Park, meadow soils on recent (<5-year-old) grizzly bear digs contained more nitrogen than adjacent, undisturbed meadow soils [114]. However, yellow avalanche-lily may be slow to establish on sites with severe soil disturbance. In Mount Rainier National Park, Washington, yellow avalanche-lily was present on undisturbed meadow plots but not on adjacent plots that had been bulldozed 35 years prior [33].

FIRE ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

Postfire Regeneration Strategy
Geophyte, growing points deep in soil [72,110,111]

Other possible strategies:
Ground residual colonizer (on site, initial community)
Initial off-site colonizer (off site, initial community)
Secondary colonizer (on- or off-site seed sources)

FIRE ADAPTATIONS AND PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE
Yellow avalanche-lily sprouts from its corm after top-kill by fire [72,84,106,111,112,130]. Because yellow avalanche-lily has a short, early growing season, it is typically dormant during the fire season [66]. Lyon and Stickney (1976) report that in forests of the Northern Rocky Mountains, cover of forbs with deeply buried stems (e.g., corms), including yellow avalanche-lily, is largely unchanged by fire [72]. First Nations people of British Columbia [12,124] and Alberta [41,54] burned meadows and woodlands “every few years” [12] to promote growth and production of yellow avalanche-lily and other geophytes [125]. Loewen et. al (2001) concluded that "Erythronium grandiflorum is well equipped to survive fires because plants become dormant before conditions are warm and dry enough for an area to burn. At many sites it may respond positively to fires because of reduced competition. Fires could also benefit E. grandiflorum by preventing tree encroachment, removing litter, and altering soil nutrients" [66].

Several studies reported yellow avalanche-lily presence on new burns, although its cover and/or frequency were usually not provided. Yellow avalanche-lily was present on plots 2 to 6 years after the 2005 School wildfire in southeastern Washington, although its abundance was not reported [83]. It was also noted on early postfire communities in the Scapegoat and Bob Marshall wildernesses, Montana [18], although burn ages were not noted. In British Columbia, it was present after fires in lodgepole pine in the Rocky Mountain Forest District and Kootenay National Park [136]. It has survived fires of high severity. Yellow avalanche-lily occurred on study sites the year after stand-replacement wildfires near Morgan Creek in east-central Idaho and near Merriweather in western Montana. Its postfire cover ranged from 3% to 5% [108]. Two years after the very severe, stand-replacement wildfires of 1910, Weaver (1917) found yellow avalanche-lily corm sprouts on sites near the town of Mt. Maries, Idaho. The sites were Douglas-fir and lodgepole pines forests prior to the fires [130].

On the Lubrecht Experimental Forest, Montana, mean cover of yellow avalanche-lily appeared to increase slightly from before and after treatments on plots that included combinations of thinning and burning, although tests of significance were not conducted. Frequency of yellow avalanche-lily was similar between control and treatment plots (table 3). Fires were generally of low to moderate severity. See the Research Project Summary Vegetation response to restoration treatments in ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir forests of western Montana for detailed information on this study, including the posttreatment responses of 204 other plant species [81].

FUEL CHARACTERISTICS
Yellow avalanche-lily is often widespread in meadows, grasslands, woodlands, and open forests. Because it grows in many plant communities, it occurs under a variety of fuel loads. It is typically senescent and dormant when fuels are dry enough to burn and contributes little to fuel loads.

FIRE REGIMES
There is a wide variety of fire regimes in the plant communities in which yellow avalanche-lily grows. Ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir forests, for example, historically experienced mostly frequent surface fires [7,36,106], while fir-spruce forests in subalpine zones experienced mixed and stand-replacement fires [106,126,127]. Because yellow avalanche-lily has deep underground corms, it tends to survive fires of all severities.

See these FEIS publications for information on historical fire regimes in plant communities in which yellow avalanche-lily is dominant or most common:

• Western alpine
• California montane mixed conifer
• California subalpine mixed conifer
• California montane and subalpine grasslands
• Montane riparian communities in California and southwestern Oregon
• Sierra Nevada-Southern Cascades quaking aspen
• Pacific Northwest riparian
• Snowberry shrublands
• North Pacific montane shrubland
• Pacific Northwest montane grasslands
• Northwestern high-elevation grasslands
• Pacific Northwest mountain hemlock
• East Cascades ponderosa pine and montane mixed conifer
• Blue Mountains conifer
• Columbia Plateau grasslands and steppe
• Northwestern montane and foothill grasslands
• Interior chaparral
• Intermountain riparian
• Mixed dwarf sagebrush
• Mountain big sagebrush
• Gambel oak
• Utah and Nevada ponderosa pine
• Limber pine
• Rocky Mountain riparian
• Rocky Mountain western redcedar
• Northern Rocky Mountain montane shrublands
• Northern Rocky Mountain ponderosa pine
• Northern Rocky Mountain montane mixed conifer
• Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir
• Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine
• Rocky Mountain subalpine mixed conifer
• Northern Rocky Mountain quaking aspen
• Rocky Mountain subalpine shrublands
• Northern Rocky Mountain high-elevation grasslands
• Wyoming ponderosa pine
• Black Hills ponderosa pine
• Southern Rocky Mountain high-elevation grasslands

OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

• FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS
• OTHER STATUS
• IMPORTANCE TO WILDLIFE AND LIVESTOCK
• VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER USES
• ADDITIONAL MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
• MANAGEMENT UNDER A CHANGING CLIMATE

OTHER STATUS
The white glacier-lily subspecies is ranked as globally secure (G5) but state-ranked as rare and vulnerable (T3) in Montana. The typical subspecies of yellow avalanche-lily is globally and state-ranked as secure [88]. Information on state- and province-level protection status of plants in the United States and Canada is available at NatureServe.

IMPORTANCE TO WILDLIFE AND LIVESTOCK
Yellow avalanche-lily is an elk [11], American black bear [109], grizzly bear [3,18,24,76,109,138], and rodent [66,125] food . Grizzly bears dig up and consume the corms [97,101], but they may also eat the entire plant [3]. Small burrowing mammals, including ground squirrels, also eat yellow avalanche-lily corms [47,125]. Mule and white-tailed deer consume aboveground parts. In the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness of Idaho, yellow avalanche-lily provided "the bulk of the forb portion" (29%) of white-tailed deer's May diets [59].

Hummingbirds visit the flowers [77,118], although they are ineffective as pollinators [118]. Bees consume the pollen and nectar [35,52,113,118].

Palatability and Nutritional Value
Aboveground yellow avalanche-lily forage is relatively high in protein content [11], and the corms are high in starch and fiber content [87]. See these sources: [11,87] for further information on the nutritional value of yellow avalanche-lily.

VALUE FOR RESTORATION OF DISTURBED SITES
Yellow avalanche-lily is difficult to cultivate [19,32,42]. It is not usually planted for restoration, although corms are sometimes available commercially.

OTHER USES
Yellow avalanche-lily is a culturally significant plant [98]. Native Peoples traditionally eat the leaves, green seed pods [42], and corms [32,42,47,55,90]. The corm has antimicrobial properties [26], and a paste made from the corm was traditionally used as a poultice for boils [26,55].

ADDITIONAL MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Yellow avalanche-lily may be sensitive to changes in the water table [97] (also see Management Under a Changing Climate).

MANAGEMENT UNDER A CHANGING CLIMATE
The seasonal development (phenology) of yellow avalanche-lily may shift with changes in the timing and duration of snowmelt [14]. Long-term data on floral abundance from 1975 to 2008, collected near Gothic, Colorado, showed that yellow avalanche-lily flowered earlier by an average of 3.2 days/decade for the first, peak, and last flowering dates. Furthermore, earlier snowmelt and greater summer precipitation in the previous year led to earlier flowering in yellow avalanche-lily. There was no change in flower abundance [63]. However, the effects of climate change on yellow avalanche-lily persistence are unclear. Because photosynthetic uptake and growing season length are determined in part by date of snowmelt, earlier melt dates induced by climate warming could result in greater carbon gain for yellow avalanche-lily. However, this could be counteracted by photoinhibition induced by low temperatures [38,43,64]. In a field experiment, early snowmelt induced by artificial, infrared warming reduced yellow avalanche-lily flower production but not rate of photosynthesis compared to unwarmed control sites [64].

Because yellow avalanche-lily is one of the first species to flower in the spring, it often provides the first resource for pollinators and herbivores [63,77]. Climate change may also result in a disconnect between the phenology of yellow avalanche-lily flowering and emergence/migration of its pollinators and/or species that rely on it for early-season forage [116]. Based on research in Colorado, a model suggests that bumble bee pollination may become limiting for yellow avalanche-lily reproduction as warming results in earlier snowmelts [116]. However, the author cautions that seasonal fluctuations are normal in alpine regions and alpine plants are adapted to such fluctuations, so long-term studies are needed to determine trends in pollinator-yellow avalanche-lily relationships [117]. For migrating, nectar-feeding bird species, this may result in loss of a valuable food source because yellow avalanche-lily flowering is no longer synchronous with migration. In turn, this phenological decoupling may reduce avian reproduction [63].

APPENDIX

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