Nature on the Trail

The Nez Perce (Nee-Me-Poo) National Historic Trail ranges from the deeply incised Columbia River Plateau, across the Continental Divide and a succession of ranges, canyons, and valleys, through forests and plains, across thermal areas and major rivers. The Trail winds through some of the most rugged and spectacular scenery in western America. It traverses some of the largest undisturbed tracts of sagebrush steppe habitat, and a tremendous variety of wildlife and plant species thrive across the varied habitats of the Trail corridor.

The Nez Perce National Historic Trail supports relatively unaltered and increasingly rare native habitats, the quality and extent of which are unequaled in the Pacific Northwest and Great Plains. Because of the variety of terrestrial and aquatic habitats across this range, there exists a tremendous variety of plant and animal species along the Trail.

Nature's Supermarket

The Nez Perce were resourceful, utilizing most or all of a plant for different purposes. Timber harvest, livestock grazing, and other kinds of use may alter the pristine occurrence of much of the flora.

By documenting the existence of plant life used by prehistoric people within the context of their environment it becomes easier to understand the dynamics of their culture, and to predict where significant cultural remains exist.

The goal of providing this information is to educate the public to gain their help in protection and preservation of plants, and to pass this part of Nez Perce culture on to future generations of Nez Perce through documentation.

Blackberry

Scientific Name: Rubus ursinus

The berries were edible, but most likely not collected in great quantities due to the amount of labor required in gathering and storing.

Black Hawthorne

Scientific Name: Crataegus douglasii
Niimiipuutímt: císnim (sísnim)

Hawthorne berries were used raw, cooked or dried. They were used dried to make pemmican. Medicinally the berries were mashed and used as a tonic to stimulate the heart. It was gathered in July to possibly as late as September depending on the season. The curved thorns were said to be used for fish hooks.

Buffaloberry

Scientific Name: Shepherida canadensis

These were gathered in August and some of the elders call them ice cream berries. They were put into a bowl with water and beaten until foamy. Sugar was added to offset the bitter taste. The concoction resembled ice cream hence the name. The berries were also edible and often dried for later use.

Chittam bark

Scientific Name: Ramnus purshiana
Niimiipuutímt: sálam

Elderberry

Scientific Name: Sambucus racenosa

The berries were eaten raw or cooked. The best time to pick these is between June and October. They utilized the sections of large, straight shoots as arrows and the branches were fashioned into flutes.

Grouseberry

Scientific Name: Vaccinium scoparium

Red berries can be eaten raw or cooked. They were often mixed with the black tree lichen when made into a mush. They were picked between August and September.

Huckleberry

Scientific Name: Vaccinium membranaceum
Niimiipuutímt: cemíiitx

This is one of the more important berries which were picked and dried in earth ovens or in the sun and stored for winter consumption. The berries were often mixed into pemmican or served with the black tree lichen as a confection.

Kinnikinnick

Scientific Name: Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
Niimiipuutímt: hotoheets hotó·to

Berries are edible. The leaves can be mixed with tobacco or used as a tobacco itself.

Labrador Tea

Scientific Name: Ledum glandulosum
Niimiipuutímt: písqu

Ocean Spray

Scientific Name: Holodiscus discolor

The fruit is edible raw or cooked. The leaves and the stems can be brewed into a tea for diarrhea.

Oregon Grape

Scientific Name: Berberis repens
Niimiipuutímt: qiqètqiqet

Blue berries are edible raw or cooked. In addition a tonic was made from dried stems and roots. The bark is shredded and the roots serve to make a yellow dye.

Prickly Pear

Scientific Name: Opuntia fragilis
Niimiipuutímt: ístis

The red fruit of the prickly pear is edible. There were eaten raw, and what could not be consumed could be dried and stored for winter. One source says the process involved splitting the fruit, discarding the seeds, and drying the pulp in the sun. Another source said they also ate the pads. White settlers were known to prepare the pads by boiling, which facilitated removing the skin and prickles, then frying the pulpy interior. In scarce times they singed the spines and fed the pads to the livestock. Crushed pads were placed directly on backaches and a tea was made from the plant for diarrhea.

Prince's Pine

Scientific Name: Chimaphila umbellata

The leaves are used in medicines as an astringent. The roots and leaves can be boiled for a drink which is considered refreshing when cooled.

Red Osier Dogwood

Scientific Name: Cornus stolonifera

The wood considered of a strong material used for bows. The bark could be mixed with Kinnikinnick for tobacco. This shrub is commonly seen growing along the banks of the Clearwater River where Clark collected several.

Red Stem Ceanothus

Scientific Name: Ceanothus sanguineus

A salve could be made by mixing the dried and powdered leaves with lard or grease. This was in turn applied to burns and sores. The leaves were used directly as a poultice. Some say a concoction could be used as a hair stimulant.

Scouler's Willow

Scientific Name: Salix scouleriana
Niimiipuutímt: taxes, piplá·c

Used as a starvation or emergency food, the inner bark has a bitter taste. It is more appetizing when it is dried and ground into flour. This willow is not to be confused with the weeping willow used as an emetic in conjunction with the sweatbath. The branches were stripped and run down into the stomach to cause vomiting to cleanse the system. This would produce a green bile that was believed to cause tiredness and once removed would enable the individual to face hardships and enter into a warfare with more ease. One source says this practice was done on a daily basis by the men. A tea was drank in this ritual combined with fasting. A second source says the Indian women never practiced this, but another maintains they did. An additional use involved using the green leaves as an eyewash, while the bark was used for the treatment of cuts. A powder was generated from the finely crushed bark and placed on a cut with a clean cloth. The bark could be used as a cure for diarrhea, dysentery, and the summer flu.

Serviceberry

Scientific Name: Amelanchier alnifolia
Niimiipuutímt: ki yaya kiké·ye

The berries are edible raw, cooked or dried. When dried and pounded, berries were formed into 10-15 pound loaves for storage. This could be used later in stews or eaten in strips like fruit leather. The berries are picked from March to July. The branches were used to make fishing gaff poles which were 6-10 feet long, and the wood was considered the best for making arrow shafts. Lewis and Clark collected three specimens of the western variety in 1806; one near Rockfort camp, one along the Clearwater River near present-day Lenore, and another along the Lolo Trail.

Smooth Sumac

Scientific Name: Rhuis glabra
Niimiipuutímt: tiltitiltit

Sumac fruits were boiled and used as a wash for stopping hemorrhaging after childbirth. The roots could be brewed into a tea to prevent painful urination and increase the flow. Moistened sumac leaves or fruits were used as poultices for skin rashes. Some say a tea from the green or dry branches were used for tuberculosis. One informant claims the sumac roots could be used as a throat lozenge. Another indicates that eating a number of the fruits would serve as a laxative.

Snowberry

Scientific Name: Symphoricarpos albus
Niimiipuutímt: cicaqiycícaqiy cđcaqiy

The leaves and fruit were crushed and applied to chapped skin and could be applied to open sores. An eyewash could also be made from the plant, and the berries were edible raw or cooked. Another use involved boiling the twigs into a brown tea to cure fevers. Children should only take a small dose. The snowberry branches were looped around cradleboards to keep babies safe from ghosts.

Syringa

Scientific Name: Philadelphus lewisii
Niimiipuutímt: sisé·qiy

The branches were dried and used to make excellent bows, arrow shafts, hair combs and pipestems. This plant was named in honor of Lewis by botanist Frederick Pursh.

Thimbleberry

Scientific Name: Rubus parviflorus

The berries were eaten fresh, but were probably not gathered for storage.

Virgin's Bower

Scientific Name: Clematis columbiana

The stems and leaves were boiled to make a solution used as an itch medicine, the affected areas were washed with the solution and rubbed with the boiled plant.

Wood's Rose

Scientific Name: Rosa woodsii
Niimiipuutímt: tamsásnim-siwey

It is also commonly referred to as Wild Rose. The rosehips can be eaten raw or cooked. Late July and early August was the time of year for harvesting. Some informants say because the rosehips was available well into the winter it was considered a starvation food. Now known for a high source of vitamin C. Nez Perce were known to use the straight wood for arrow shafts. In addition to this, the sprigs were used on cradleboards to keep babies safe from ghosts. Lewis observed this plant in October 1804.

Yarrow

Scientific Name: Achillea milleolium
Niimiipuutímt: wapalwá·pal

The entire plant can be dried and ground into flour. It is used to remedy run down feelings or for digestion disorders. The leaves are used to stop bleeding and to heal rashes. Tea was made from leaves to help break fevers. A story by Joe Broncheau, a Nez Perce Tribal elder, tells of an incident where his father treated him as a young boy with leaves he had dampened and applied as a poultice to his leg which a horse had fallen on and rolled up the entire leg. He states the bruised leg healed remarkably fast and the pain was relieved immediately.

American Vetch

Scientific Name: Vicia americana

Stems and seeds are edible when boiled or baked.

Balsam Sunflower

Scientific Name: Balsamorhiza sagittata
Niimiipuutímt:pá·sx pasax

The root was harvested in April to June, and the root serves as a complimentary root to more important roots. The leaves can be used as a liner in the camas ovens to lay the bulbs on when baking. July is the best time of the year to gather the stems which were peeled or to roast the seeds. This plant is also known as arrowleaf balsamroot.

Beargrass

Scientific Name: Xerophyllum tenax
Niimiipuutímt: yé.ye

The leaves were used to weave baskets and used as stuffing in a man's saddle pad.

Big Head Clover

Scientific Name: Trifolium macrocephalum

Tea was made from the fried heads and it could be eaten raw or cooked. It is a favorite among big game.

Bitterroot

Scientific Name: Lewisia rediviva
Niimiipuutímt: lit'á·n

The Bitterroot was highly regarded in trade and was considered one of the top five roots important to the Nez Perce.

Bull Thistle

Scientific Name: Cirsium vulgare
Niimiipuutímt: cíckax cíckak

Roots can be eaten raw or cooked. Peeled stems are cooked as greens. The flower heads are palatable to big game.

Buttercup

Scientific Name: Ranunculus glaberrimus
Niimiipuutímt: ?iceyé·yenm sílu ?ice, sílu

The poison was removed by cooking and the roots are then edible and parching the seeds allows for them to be digested as well.

Camas

Scientific Name: Camassia quamash
Niimiipuutímt: qémes

The roots are baked in an oven for about 48 hours and determined to be done by the color of the bulb which turns a dark brown or black. These can be pressed into loaves and dried. They were dug between July and September and placed in cedar baskets and later in leather bags as cedar was no longer used. A number of favored gathering places include the Weippe Prairie, Musselshell Meadows, Packer Meadows, Moscow Prairie, and the Big Hole Valley to name a few.

Chittam bark

Scientific Name: Ramnus purshiana
Niimiipuutímt: sálam

Cow Parsnip

Scientific Name: Heracleum lanatum
Niimiipuutímt:?áys, ?áyas

The roots could be used fresh or dried to apply to swelling feet. The young stalks were peeled and eaten raw and the plant served to make elk whistles from the hollow stem when dried.

Desert Parsley

Scientific Name: Lomatium dissectum
Niimiipuutímt: qá·msit

Downy Fruited Vervain

Scientific Name: Valeriana acutiloba

The root was considered a medicinal plant for sore throats when small pieces were chewed and consumed. The root was also used and still is in conjunction with the sweat bath for spiritual cleansing. Today the root is used atop a stove in a pot of water as a vaporizer to relieve colds.

False Hellebore

Scientific Name: Veratrum californicum

This was considered a strong medicine. The root was dried and smoked with tobacco. A powder from the dried root could be inhaled up the nostrils as a decongestant. The leaves could be used as a liner for camas baking.

Fireweed

Scientific Name: Epilobium angustifolium

The dried leaves were used for a tea, and the stems could be peeled and eaten.

Fox Glove

Scientific Name: Digitalis purpurea

Roots can be eaten raw or cooked. Peeled stems are cooked as greens. The flower heads are palatable to big game.

Geranium

Scientific Name: Geranium viscosissimum

The roots could be mashed and used as a poultice for breast feeding complications in combating pain. It was also known to treats warts by boiling the roots or applying the milky sap directly from the plant. Baked roots could also be used on cuts, swellings, or wounds.

Glacier Lily

Scientific Name: Erythronium grandiflorum

The bulbs are usually cooked, or dried and stored. Leaves and fresh green seed pods are edible raw. Also known as the Pale Fawn Lily.

Indian Paintbrush

Scientific Name: Castilleja hispida

The nectar was a favorite for children to suck on.

Ladyslipper

Scientific Name: Calypso bulbosa

Madagascar Periwinkle

Scientific Name: Vinca major

Used to fight run down feelings. Today it is used as a cancer fighting substance against leukemia and Hodgkins disease.

Mariposa Lily

Scientific Name: Calochortus apiculatus

June to August was the time of gathering. The bulbs were eaten.

Moth Mullein

Scientific Name: Verbascum blattaria

The plant was boiled to make a shampoo and it was thought to make the hair darker.

Mule's Ear

Scientific Name: Vinca major

The Nez Perce chopped and boiled the root for its medicinal qualities. Big game also enjoy the heads as a food source.

Northern Bedstraw

Scientific Name: Galium boreale

The roots were used to make a yellow dye and the seeds were edible.

Round Leafed Alumroot

Scientific Name: Heuchera cylindrica

The root could either be boiled to make a tea for stomach problems or could be chewed as well.

Showy Aster

Scientific Name: Aster conspicuous

A treatment for gonorrhea was produced from a tea from the roots.

Showy frasera

Scientific Name: Frasera fastigiata
Niimiipuutímt: ét'xt'ex

June to July is the dates when it is available for consumption. Also known as Clustered Frasera.

Skunk Cabbage

Scientific Name: Lysichiton americanum

The plant was used as a medicine for arthritis and to line the camas baking ovens.

Starry Solomon Seal

Scientific Name: Smilacina stellata

Its main use was as a laxative.

Western Meadowrue

Scientific Name: Thalictrum occidentale

The seeds were boiled for a tea which helped with colds, fevers, and chills. This is the male species, the female species may not have the same effects.

Wild Carrot

Scientific Name: Perideridia gairdneri
Niimiipuutímt: cawí·tx cawitak

Yampa is best in July when they are in bloom and can be tender and sweet.

Wild Strawberry

Scientific Name: Fragaria vesca
Niimiipuutímt: ét'xt'ex

Berries were eaten, but never gathered in great quantities. A tea was made from the green leaves.

Yellowbells

Scientific Name: Fritillaria pudica
Niimiipuutímt: stiméx

The corms of the yellowbell are edible when washed, boiled and served to supplement other major root crops such as bitterroot. It was collected in early May.

Yellow Monkeyflower

Scientific Name: Mimulus guttatus

The Monkeyflower and its many species were used as an aphrodisiac.

Wildlife Along the Trail

American Badger

Scientific Name: Taxidea taxus
Niimíipuu Name: Si'ki

Badgers are known for their traits that allow them to burrow in the ground for resting, denning, and pursuing prey. They are built low to the ground, like skunks, and have a white stripe on their forehead and white cheeks. However, they lack the white stripe down their back. Their bodies are stout, compact, and heavy with partially webbed toes and long claws, all of which aid in digging.

Badgers are carnivores that feed on ground squirrels, prairie dogs, marmots, and pocket gophers. Burrowing helps them reach their preferred prey. They have also been seen eating dead animals, insects, reptiles, birds, and other small mammals.

Badgers are nocturnal and solitary for most of the year but come together during the breeding season in late summer and early fall. Females give birth in the spring and can be seen above ground during the day with their young. Litters range from one to five pups and stay in the underground dens until they are 3 months old and stay with their mother until 6 months old. Badgers can grow to be 11 pounds.

Nez Perce Hunting

In the summer months, the Nez Perce moved to higher altitudes to set up temporary camps. They gathered roots, fished, and hunted big and small game including rabbit, squirrel, marmot, and badger. Badger was also hunted when boys were being taught how to hunt.

The American Badger is part of the Mustelidae family, which also includes weasels, otters, ferrets, and wolverines. The species name for badger is Taxidea taxus, with four different subspecies: T. t. taxus, T. t. jacksoni, T.t. jeffersoni, and T. t. berlandieri. T. t. taxus is found in the central U.S. and T. t. jeffersoni is found in the western U.S., both areas found along the Nez Perce (Nee-Me-Poo) National Historic Trail. But be careful! Badgers are aggressive. Do not approach them in the wild.

Sources:

Idaho Fish & Game. American Badger. March 2021.

Montana Field Guide. American Badger — Taxidea taxus. Montana Natural Heritage Program and Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks. March 2021.

Moor, Evan. 2003. History Pockets: Native Americans Grades 1-3. Evan Moor Educational Publishers.

The American Badger. National Park Service- White Sands Monument.

Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. American Badger (Taxidea taxus). March 2021.

Scientific Name: Ursus americanus

The American black bear is a medium-sized bear native to North America. It is the continent's smallest and most widely distributed bear species.

Description: The skulls of American black bears are broad, with narrow muzzles and large jaw hinges. Females tend to have slenderer and more pointed faces than males. Their claws are typically black or grayish-brown. The claws are short and rounded, being thick at the base and tapering to a point. Claws from both hind and front legs are almost identical in length, though the foreclaws tend to be more sharply curved.
American black bear weight tends to vary according to age, sex, health and season. Seasonal variation in weight is very pronounced: in autumn, their pre-den weight tends to be 30% higher than in spring, when black bears emerge from their dens. Adult males typically weigh between 57–250 kg (126–551 lb), while females weigh 33% less at 41–170 kg (90–375 lb).
The fur is soft, with dense underfur and long, coarse, thick guard hairs. Despite their name, American black bears show a great deal of color variation. Individual coat colors can range from white, blonde, cinnamon, light brown or dark chocolate brown to jet black, with many intermediate variations existing.

Habitat: Throughout their range, habitats preferred by American black bears have a few shared characteristics. They are often found in areas with relatively inaccessible terrain, thick understory vegetation and large quantities of edible material. The adaptation to woodlands and thick vegetation in this species may have originally been due to the American black bear having evolved alongside larger, more aggressive bear species, such as the extinct giant short-faced bear and the still-living grizzly bear, that monopolized more open habitats and the historic presence of larger predators, that could have preyed on American black bears. Although found in the largest numbers in wild, undisturbed areas and rural regions, American black bears can adapt to surviving in some numbers in peri-urban regions, as long as they contain easily accessible foods and some vegetative coverage.

In most of the contiguous United States, American black bears today are usually found in heavily vegetated mountainous areas, from 400 to 3,000 m (1,300 to 9,800 ft) in elevation. For American black bears living in the American Southwest and Mexico, habitat usually consists of stands of chaparral and pinyon juniper woods. In this region, bears occasionally move to more open areas to feed on prickly pear cactus. At least two distinct, prime habitat types are inhabited in the Southeastern United States. American black bears in the southern Appalachian Mountains survive in predominantly oak-hickory and mixed mesophytic forests. In the coastal areas of the Southeast (such as Florida, the Carolinas and Louisiana), bears inhabit a mixture of flatwoods, bays and swampy hardwood sites.

In the northeast part of the range (United States and Canada), prime habitat consists of a forest canopy of hardwoods such as beech, maple, birch and coniferous species. Corn crops and oak-hickory mast are also common sources of food in some sections of the Northeast; small, thick swampy areas provide excellent refuge cover largely in stands of white cedar. Along the Pacific coast, redwood, Sitka spruce and hemlocks predominate as overstory cover. Within these northern forest types are early successional areas important for American black bears, such as fields of brush, wet and dry meadows, high tidelands, riparian areas and a variety of mast-producing hardwood species. The spruce-fir forest dominates much of the range of the American black bear in the Rockies. Important nonforested areas here are wet meadows, riparian areas, avalanche chutes, roadsides, burns, sidehill parks and subalpine ridgetops.

In areas where human development is relatively low, such as stretches of Canada and Alaska, American black bears tend to be found more regularly in lowland regions. In parts of northeastern Canada, especially Labrador, American black bears have adapted exclusively to semi-open areas that are more typical habitat in North America for brown bears (likely due to the absence here of brown and polar bears, as well as other large carnivore species)

Food: American black bears are omnivorous so they eat plants, fruits, nuts, insects, honey, salmon, small mammals, and carrion.

Scientific Name: Felis lynx canadensis
Niimiipuutímt: wipwip

Description: Lynx have short tails and characteristic tufts of black hair on the tip of their ears. They have a ruff under the neck, which has black bars (not very visible), resembling a bow tie. They have large padded paws for walking on snow, and long whiskers on the face. All four of the lynx species have very long legs. The sizes of lynx vary from small at 5-20 kilograms, to medium at 40 kilograms. The body color varies from medium brown to gold-ish to beige-white; and occasionally, is marked with dark brown spots, especially on the limbs. All species of lynx also have white fur on their chests, bellies and on the insides of their legs, which are extensions of the chest and belly fur. Also, the lynx's coloring, fur height and paw size varies by its climate range - in the Southwest U.S., the fur and color are short-haired, dark and the paws are smaller and less padded; as the lynx ranges to its colder northern climes, the fur gets progressively thicker (for warmth), the color gets lighter (for camouflage) and its paws enlarge and become more padded for snowy environments. Their paws may become as large as a human hand or even larger. They have extremely good hearing and they also have 28 teeth, which, when paired with the jaw structure, stab deeply into their prey. The digestive system of the lynx allows them to eat the flesh of its prey, giving them extra nutrients. This can be especially helpful to the lynx because they are not the most efficient hunters, losing most of their prey to many other factors. Lynx also have a hyoid bone that allows them to purr loudly, but not roar.

Habitat: Canadian Lynx have been observed (2006) in the Wet Mountains of Colorado. In recent years, a few lynx sightings were reported in the southern Appalachian Mountains of western North Carolina, specifically in the area from Mount Mitchell across to the Shope Creek Forest area (part of Pisgah National Forest). One lynx was even caught alive in a cage trap at Graystone Cabins near Barnardsville, North Carolina; the animal was later released into a wilderness area within Madison County, North Carolina. Although the USFWS officials still deny the presence of lynx in the southern Appalachians, the most recent sighting was reported in Sept 2007, along the Shope Creek Forest area. USFWS officials have said, if these were bona fide lynx sightings, they were most likely illegally-held pets, which were released or had escaped. The Canadian Lynx is common throughout the boreal forests of Canada, and is especially abundant throughout its northern range when snowshoe hare numbers are high.

Lineage: The four species of the Lynx genus all believe to have evolved from the Issoire Lynx. The Issoire Lynx is believed to have been the original lynx during the Pliocene period. The Issoire Lynx is considered to be more robust than today's lynx. From molecular genetic analysis, the North American Bobcat is the oldest branch, followed by the Iberian Lynx.

Legal status: The hunting of lynx is illegal in many countries. The Iberian Lynx is almost extinct and the killing of any individuals has been outlawed since the 1970s in Spain and Portugal. In 2000, the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service designated the Canadian Lynx a Threatened species in the lower 48 states.

Scientific Name: Rana luteiventris

Description: The Columbia Spotted Frog may be tan, gray, brown, reddish-brown, or red above with irregular black spots with indistinct edges and light centers. The frog has upturned eyes and relatively short hind legs with extensive webbing. There is a stripe on the lower jaw, and dorsolateral (on both the back and the sides) folds or ridges are usually present. The frog's undersides are usually cream-colored; the lower abdomen and the undersides of the hind legs are usually a reddish-orange, but can also be yellow. Females are generally about 4 inches in size; males are usually about 3 inches.

Range: The spotted frog can be found from extreme southeastern Alaska, south through western Alberta to coastal Oregon and Washington, and east to northern Wyoming, northern Utah, and central Nevada.

Habitat: Spotted frogs can be found in areas up to 9850 feet in elevation. They prefer hilly areas near cool, permanent, quiet water in streams, rivers, lakes, pools, springs, and marshes. The frog is highly aquatic, but may disperse into forests, grasslands, and brushlands. In the Northwest, the Columbia spotted frog prefers areas with thick algae and emergent vegetation, but may use sunken, dead, or decaying vegetation as escape cover.

Food: Spotted frogs eat a wide variety of insects, along with mollusks, crustaceans, and arachnids. The larvae eat algae, organic debris, plant tissue, and tiny water-borne organisms.

Ecology: Spotted frogs hibernate depending on range, and are mostly inactive in winter. They may move overland in spring after breeding. This species is in decline across some of its range, but seems to be widespread and abundant in Idaho. Bullfrogs are predators.

Reproduction: Spotted frogs are not sexually mature until 4 years for males and 6 years for females. They usually breed from mid-March through June, depending on elevation. A Wyoming study found that females breed yearly at low elevations, but only every two or three years at higher elevations. Females may lay egg masses in communal clusters.

Scientific Name: Procyon lotor
Niimíipuu Name: K'ayk'áyoc

Description:

The Common Raccoon are best known for the black mask around their eyes and striped tails. The mask on their face is dark brown/black with white on the nose, eyebrows, and between the eyes. The stripped tail has five to seven alternating rings of light yellowish-white and dark brown or black. Raccoons also have flat feet, with their hind legs longer than their front legs, giving them a hunched appearance. Their feet have five moveable toes, allowing them to grab and handle food.

Raccoons measure about 3 feet long, with a 12-inch tail, and weigh 15 to 40 pounds. That is a large weight range, but it depends on genetics, age, food availability, and habitat location. Males are larger than females and have even reached 60 pounds. Raccoons located in urban settings also weigh more than a raccoon in the wild because of garbage and handouts from humans.

Raccoons will eat almost anything, even, as mentioned, human garbage. However, they prefer creatures found in around water such as clams, crayfish, frogs, fish, and snails. Raccoons in the wild have also been seen eating insects, slugs, dead animals, birds, bird eggs, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds.

Raccoons are solitary, except for during the breeding season and when females are taking care of their young. Breeding season is between January and June, with peak mating during March and April. Raccoons have litters of two to three kits. They use dens to shelter themselves and their young, with kits remaining in the den until they are 8 to 10 weeks old and remain with their mother through the winter and into the spring.

Nez Perce Mythology:

In the Nez Perce legend Itsayaya’s Revenge, a sleeping Coyote was roasting salmon on a fire when he was approached by five thieves: Eagle, Owl, Fox, Wolf, and Fox. The thieves ate the salmon and cut off a piece of Coyote’s tail to replace the salmon, since then Coyotes have short tails. Coyote awoke to find his food gone and tail cut, so he pursued the thieves for revenge. Coyote found then asleep around a fire and decided to alter their appearances. Coyote used coal from the fire to make dark circles around the Raccoon’s eyes and tail.

Raccoons (Procyon lotor) are a common species found in WA, ID, OR, and MT along the Nez Perce (Nee-Me-Poo) National Historic Trail. Raccoons should not be confused with the Ringtail (Bassariscus astutus), another species in the family Procyonidae, and known for their rock climbing. Raccoons are native to the United States and can also be found in urban settings.

Sources:

Idaho Fish & Game. Northern Raccoon. April 2021. https://idfg.idaho.gov/species/taxa/77652

Heady, E.B. 1970. Tales of the Nimipoo: From the Land of the Nez Perce Indian. The World Publishing Company: New York and Cleveland.

Montana Field Guides. Raccoon- Procyon lotor. Montana Natural Heritage Program and Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks. April 2021. http://fieldguide.mt.gov/speciesDetail.aspx?elcode=AMAJE02010

Oregon Department of Fish & Wildlife. Ringtail and Raccoon. April 2021. https://myodfw.com/wildlife-viewing/species/ringtail-and-raccoon

Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. Raccoons (Procyon lotor). April 2021. https://wdfw.wa.gov/species-habitats/species/procyon-lotor#living

Scientific Name: Puma concolor
Niimíipuu Name: ḱoỳaḿá

Traits and Behaviors:

Cougars are a solitary species that live around rocky cliffs, ledges, vegetated ridgetops, and areas where their prey is located. They are generally active at night and hunt deer, elk, moose, mountain goats, wild sheep, and deer. Younger cougars eat raccoons, coyotes, rabbits, hares, small rodents, and sometimes pets or livestock. Cougars will drag the prey to a covered area to feed on it and once full will hide the rest of the remains under snow, grass, leaves, or anything else available.

Cougars have den sites in dense thickets or under fallen logs. They use these dens during the day for sleep, general protection from the weather, and to raise their young. Their home range includes the area they hunt within, which varies by sex, age, and season. Home ranges can span up to 196 miles but can also be as small as 25 miles. Males have a larger range and can grow up to 8 feet long and 130-150 pounds. Females are around 7 feet long and weigh 65-90 pounds. If a cougar is in the area you will also notice scratches on logs or trees, scraped up piles of leaves or dirt, or large scats with hair and bones in it.

Cougars are a uniform color of tan or gray with a long thick tail with a black tip and black around the whiskers area. Kittens, or cubs, are covered in black or brown spots until the age of 18 months with about 1-6 kittens in each litter. Cougars are polygamous and breed year-round, so litters can be seen any time of the year, but most often in July and August.

Safety Tips:

To safely travel through the habitats that cougars live in, use these steps to avoid running into a cougar-

Make a lot of noise! Cougars do not like to be surprised and will move away from human voices. You can also whistle or use bells.
Stay away from dead animals since this may be food the cougar has saved for later.
Travel in small groups and do not leave food lying around.
Avoid running or walking alone at dawn, dusk, or after dark.
Stay aware of your surroundings (do not wear headphones and look for signs of a cougar).

If you still run into a cougar, follow these steps-

Do not approach the cougar.
Do not run or bend over.
Make yourself appear large and intimidating.
Face the cougar and back away slowly. Do not turn your back to them.

Nez Perce Wéeyekin:

The Nez Perce gathered strength for changing conditions using spirituality. One important component of this is the guardian spirit called a wéeyekin. This is a spirit that young adults try to obtain during a solitary venture into the woods. This spirit guides or warns individuals during extreme or dangerous situations. One could say as a general idea that k’oy’am’á “cougar” is considered part of the pantheon of animals eligible as wéeyekin “spirit guardian(s).” Cougar hides (with fur) often served as an accoutrement for personal or horse regalia. Or even as a bow quiver. Such uses regarded or symbolized the k’oy’am’á as a helper in life. Meat-eater wéeyekin “spirit guardian(s)”, like the cougar, were considered fierce.

The cougar, also called a mountain lion, puma, or panther, is the largest member of the cat family located in the Western United States and Canada. During pre-settlement times, the cougar could be found from coast to coast and from Canada down to southern Chile and Argentina. The cougar is the mascot for Washington State University in Pullman, WA where cougar sightings are often reported.

Scientific Name: Canis latrans
Niimiipuutímt: ’iceyéeye

The name coyote is derived from the Aztec word “coyotl”. Coyotes are found throughout the United States (except Hawaii) and in most of Canada. Prior to 1900, coyotes were restricted to areas west of the Mississippi in the United States and west of Ontario’s Lake Nipigon in Canada.

The coyote’s success is attributed to the coyote’s ability to adapt. Coyotes have adjusted well to human disturbed environments, and now thrive in close proximity to people. The coyote is a member of the canid family of which includes both wolves and domestic dogs.

Physical Appearance: Coyotes range in color from near black to off white. Some appear rust colored with a white or gray throat and belly.

Like other predators, coyotes vary in size. The males are larger than the females. The average size of a coyote is 37 inches long and 18 inches high. Their weight varies from 20 to 50 pounds.

The coyote is distinguished by its long narrow snout, pointed ears and general dog-like appearance.

The female prepares the den. The male assists in the raising of the young and initially supplies most of the food. The pups are born blind and hairless. They begin eating meat at 8 weeks of age and start hunting between 8-12 weeks.

The pups disperse between November and March. The family may hunt together temporarily in mid-winter but do not form true packs.

People should never approach pups or attempts to take them from a denning area. Even if you see pups unattended, their parents are usually just a short distance away. Adults rarely abandon their young.

Tell-Tale Signs: Coyote tracks are very similar to other members of the dog family. Imprints show four toes and toe nails; front tracks are larger than the rear. The front tracks are 2 to 3 long and 2 inches wide. Rear tracks are 2 inches long and 1 ½ inches wide.

Their scat is variable in size and consistency, depending on diet. It often contains hair, berries, bone fragments and sees. You are likely to find droppings along the Nez Perce National Historic Trail, atop knolls, near boulders or prominent tufts of grass.

Coyotes may be the most vocal of land mammals. Although most people are familiar with the coyote’s howl, the animal actually has a language that incorporates a variety of sounds. They have long clear calls in addition to barks and yips. Their vocalizations are designed to bring individuals together or let other coyotes know their location.

Habitat: Coyotes have expanded their range over the last century. They are found in all habitats, ranging from grasslands and deserts to urban areas and mountains.

Coyotes are common in areas where rabbits, mice and gophers live. These may include lush rangelands or over grazed pastures.

In order to provide shelter for their pups, coyotes den in a wide variety of places including brush covered slopes, steep banks, rock ledges, thickets hollow logs. They will also dig their own burrows. Dens of other animals are frequently used.

Food: Coyotes are opportunistic hunters. They prey on small mammals, domestic pets, livestock and domestic fowl but will readily eat carrion and plants. A coyote will adjust its diet depending on the food that is available.

Photo credits: Jim Peaco and Bryan Harry

Scientific Name: Oncorhynchus clarkii
Niimíipuu Name: Waẁá’łam

Description:

Both subspecies are known for their black spots, red slash on the lower jaw, and small teeth on the floor of the mouth behind the tongue. Interbreeding between the Westslope and Yellowstone subspecies has resulted in various spotting and coloration in the fish populations.

Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout:

The Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout are gold and brown with variable black spotting. In general, they are larger than the Westslope Cutthroat Trout and can grow 6 to 26 inches in size and up to 2 pounds in weight. They are native to the Yellowstone River, Snake River, and Falls River drainages and spawn in the spring. The Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout eat aquatic insects and occasionally other fish.

Westslope Cutthroat Trout:

The Westslope Cutthroat Trout are green and grey with larger spots along the midline of the body towards the head, smaller spots at the tail, and no spots near the pectoral fin. The lower sides of the bodies turn red while spawning in the spring. They tend to be 6 to 16 inches in size and up to 1.5 pounds in weight. Historically, they were found all over Montana and were the most widely distributed species of the cutthroat Trout. However, now they can only be found in the upper Missouri River, with a hybridized form of the subspecies found in other regions. The Westslope Cutthroat Trout eat aquatic insects and zooplankton.

Documenting the Cutthroat Trout:

In 1805, the Lewis and Clark expedition reached the Missouri River in present-day Montana. The expedition party often ate fish while traveling and recorded the species discovered along the way, and that day they caught a new trout. Lewis described it based on the distinguishing feature of a slash or cut under its lower jaw, black specks, and pale yellowish color. Clark described the fish in greater detail in his journal and named it the “dark salmon trout.”

In 1834, preserved North American salmon and trout specimens were sent to Europe and studied by Sir John Richardson, including the Cutthroat Trout. Richardson gave the Trout the species name of Salmo clarkii, in honor of William Clark, who was the first European to name the fish. Salmo clarkii was later renamed Oncorhynchus clarkii, based on updated species classifications. Merriwether Lewis is also acknowledged for his description of the fish in the subspecies name Oncorhynchus clarkii lewisi (Westslope Cutthroat Trout).

Nez Perce Mythology:

Historically, the Nez Perce relied on fish as a major food source, especially the Chinook. Recent destruction and loss of traditional fishing sites along rivers are deemed one of the greatest tragedies for this and future generations by tribal elders since it breaks the circle of life. However, the Nez Perce Tribe has made efforts for restoration, such as establishing fisheries to manage fish and wildlife for future generations.

The importance of fish, such as Trout, is why they are included within Nez Perce mythology. One story is called A Meeting Between Creator and the Animals, which explains the origins of geological features and relationships the Creator made between animals and humans. The relationship established with Salmon and Steelhead was that they would provide humans with food, but only at certain times of the year. The Trout said he would look like the Steelhead but would stay year-round for the humans, only that humans would have to dig for them in the gravel during the winter.

The Cutthroat Trout is a fish species that occupy cold-water streams and rivers along the Pacific Ocean, Rocky Mountains, and the Great Basin of North America. The name “cutthroat” comes from the red mark under its head, resembling a slash on their throat. The two main subspecies in the region are the Yellowstone (Oncorhynchus clarkii bouvieri) and Westslope (Oncorhynchus clarkii lewisi), together named the Blackspotted Cutthroat Trout, and are Montana’s state fish.

Sources:

Custom Field Guide from http://FieldGuide.mt.gov for Fish of Montana. September 2020.

Landeen, D., & Pinkham, A. 1999. Salmon and His People: Fish & Fishing in Nez Perce Culture. Confluence Pr.

National Park Service. (n.d.). Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout. September 2020. https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/yellowstone-cutthroat-trout.htm

National Park Service. (n.d.). Westslope Cutthroat Trout. September 2020. https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/westslope-cutthroat-trout.htm

Trotter, P.C., & Bisson, P.A. 1988. History of the Discovery of the Cutthroat Trout. American Fisheries Society Symposium. 4:8-12. Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/lwm/aem/docs/bisson/1988_bisson_history_cutthroat_trout.pdf

Yellowstone National Park Wolf by Jacob Frank NPS photo

Scientific Name: Canis lupus
Niimiipuutímt: hímiin

The largest of the wild dogs, adults in the Northern Rockies weigh around 108 lbs. and females around 80 lbs. Males average 7 inches in length, females 70 inches, with their tails roughly a third of their body length. Color ranges from black to gray and both color phases can be found in a pack or litter of pups.

Wolves communicate through body language, scent marking, barking, growling, and howling. Much of their communication is about reinforcing the social hierarchy of the pack. When a wolf wants to show that it is submissive to another wolf, it will crouch, whimper, tuck in its tail, lick the other wolf's mouth, or roll over on its back. When a wolf wants to challenge another wolf, it will growl or lay its ears back on its head. A playful wolf dances and bows. Barking is used as a warning, and howling is for long-distance communication to pull a pack back together and to keep strangers away.

Range: The historic range of the gray wolf covered over two-thirds of the United States. Today gray wolves have populations in Alaska, northern Michigan, northern Wisconsin, western Montana, northern Idaho, northeast Oregon, and the Yellowstone area of Wyoming. Mexican wolves, a subspecies of the gray wolf, were reintroduced to protected parkland in eastern Arizona and southwest New Mexico. Wolves can thrive in a diversity of habitats from the tundra to woodlands, forests, grasslands and deserts.

Food: Large, hoofed mammals such as deer, elk, bison, and moose. They also hunt smaller mammals such as beavers, rodents, and hares. Adults can eat 20 pounds of meat in a single meal.

Nez Perce Traditional Uses: There is a spiritual bond between the Nez Perce Tribe and the wolf. Wolves symbolize wisdom, strength, and family loyalty in tribal legend. During the War and Flight of 1877 domesticated wolves/coyotes numbering in the hundreds fled with their native masters. These dogs were used for packing and pulling small travois.

Scientific Name: Dicamptodon aterrimus
Niimíipuu Name: ’ap’ap’áap’ap (Lizard)

Traits and Behaviors

The Idaho Giant Salamander is on average 4.5 to 6 inches in length, but sometimes grow to over a foot long. They are primarily found in Idaho along the forested watersheds from Coeur d’Alene to the Salmon River but are also found in a small area of Montana that borders Idaho.

They can be recognized by their size compared to other salamanders in the region, a large head, and marbled pattern along their back that is copper or tan in color against black with grey or dark brown. They look like Idaho’s Tiger Salamander, but the Idaho Giant Salamander does not have visible costal grooves and the hind back fourth toe only has three segments.

The Idaho Giant Salamander has three life stages, each with different distinctive characteristics than what is seen in adults. They begin life as eggs that are unpigmented attached under logs and rocks. These eggs are laid in groups of 135-200. The eggs then hatch as larvae. Larvae are adapted to live under rocks in streams and have small gills on the sides of their heads, yellowish patches on their sides and back, and a fin that runs down their tails. Larvae eat insects, fish, frogs, and sometimes other salamanders. Larvae metamorphose into adults at 18-24 months, but some stay in the water longer and end up becoming the largest adults.

Once adults, they leave the water, lose their gills, and live under moist rocks, logs, or bark in coniferous forests near streams, lakes, and ponds. They are only active at night, especially when it is warm and rains, but most of the time remain hidden. Adults eat most things available around them on land such as insects, small snakes, mice, frogs, and other salamanders.

Nez Perce (Nee-Me-Poo) National Historic Trail

The Idaho Giant Salamander can be found along the beginning portion of the Nez Perce (Nee-Me-Poo) National Historic Trail. If you are following the Auto Tours provided here (link), the salamander is found in the areas covered in Auto Tours 1 and 2, particularly the rugged terrain routes along the Snake River in Auto Tour 1. The Snake River used to fill with eels, steelhead, and chinook salmon, and Nez Perce communities would come together to fish with large nets followed by rituals and a ceremonial feast (kooyit). There are current efforts to restore these habitats that were destroyed or fragmented from logging for the fish and other wildlife, such as the Idaho Giant Salamander. During the 1877 war and flight, the “non-treaty” Nez Perce crossed the Snake River at multiple points as they fled from U.S. Troops.

The Idaho Giant Salamander (Dicamptodon aterrimus) is the largest species of salamander found in the state of Idaho and the official state amphibian. The Idaho Giant Salamander is closely related to the California Giant Salamandar (Dicamptodon ensatus), Cope’s Giant Salamandar (Dicamptodon copei), and Coastal Giant Salamandar (Dicamptodon tenebrosus).

Sources:

Evan, A. 2015. Idaho Giant Salamander. Wildlife Express. 29(2). https://idfg.idaho.gov/old-web/docs/wildlifeExpress/2015oct.pdf

Idaho Fish and Game. Idaho Giant Salamander. November 2020. https://idfg.idaho.gov/species/taxa/18250

Idaho Fish and Wildlife, (n.d.). Idaho’s Amphibians & Reptiles: Description, Habitat, & Ecology. NonGame Wildlife Leaflet #7. https://idfg.idaho.gov/old-web/docs/wildlife/nongame/leafletAmphibian.pdf

Montana Fish, Wildlife, and Parks. Idaho Giant Salamanders Found in Montana. November 2020. http://fwp.mt.gov/news/newsReleases/headlines/nr_1914.html

National Park Service, Nez Perce National Historical Park. Fish. November 2020. https://www.nps.gov/nepe/learn/nature/fish.htm

Scientific Name: Alces americanus
Niimiipuutímt: sáaslaqs

The largest antlered animal in the world, bull (male) moose can weigh 800 to 1200 lbs; cows (females) weigh in from 600 to 800 lbs. Both have coats dark brown to black and overhanging snout but bulls have a pendant “bell” under the throat and massive flat antlers. At home in the water, they may submerge for three to four minutes or swim for miles. Cows are very protective of their calves.

Habitat:

Moose require habitat with adequate edible plants (e.g., pond grasses, young trees and shrubs), cover from predators, and protection from extremely hot or cold weather. Moose travel among different habitats with the seasons to address these requirements. Moose are cold-adapted mammals with thickened skin, dense, heat-retaining coat, and a low surface:volume ratio, which provides excellent cold tolerance but poor heat tolerance. Moose survive hot weather by accessing shade or cooling wind, or by immersion in cool water. In hot weather, moose are often found wading or swimming in lakes or ponds. When heat-stressed, moose may fail to adequately forage in summer and may not gain adequate body fat to survive the winter. Also, moose cows may not calve without adequate summer weight gain. Moose require access to both young forest for browsing and mature forest for shelter and cover. Forest disturbed by fire and logging promotes the growth of fodder for moose. Moose also require access to mineral licks, safe places for calving and aquatic feeding sites.

Moose avoid areas with little or no snow as this increases the risk of predation by wolves and avoid areas with deep snow, as this impairs mobility. Thus, moose select habitat on the basis of trade-offs between risk of predation, food availability, and snow depth. With reintroduction of bison into boreal forest, there was some concern that bison would compete with moose for winter habitat, and thereby worsen the population decline of moose. However, this does not appear to be a problem. Moose prefer sub-alpine shrublands in early winter, while bison prefer wet sedge valley meadowlands in early-winter. In late-winter, moose prefer river valleys with deciduous forest cover or alpine terrain above the tree line, while bison preferred wet sedge meadowlands or sunny southern grassy slopes.

Food: Grasses and shrubs. In the winter they eat shrubs and pinecones, but they also scrape snow with their large hooves to clear areas for browsing on mosses and lichens.

Scientific Name: Oreamnos americanus
Niimíipuu Name: C'axfisxis

Description:

Mountain Goats are unique because they live in harsh alpine climates with strong winds and snow and move along steep slopes. They can maneuver in extreme conditions because of their cloven hooves, which have two toes that spread and rough pads that grip. These features aid in balance so they can climb safely. Mountain Goats can also jump up to 12 feet in one bound! They stay warm and camouflaged in the snow because of their thick and soft white hair. Other distinctive features include their long beards and pointed horns which are scene in both males and females.

Female goats are called nannies, male goats are called billies, and their offspring are called kids. Males (billies) tend to be larger than females and stockier to compete for females during mating season. Breeding season is from early November to December, with nannies giving birth to one or two kids in early spring. Nannies live in herds with their kids that can reach up to 20 animals, while billies live along or with a few other males. They live for 9 to 12 years and can weight up to 300 pounds!

Diet: Since Mountain Goats live such extreme environments, food is scarce. They eat mountain mahogany, shrubs, conifers, sedges, rushes, mosses, lichens, and grasses found along and between rocks. Choice in food varies by season, with shrubs mostly eaten in the winter and grasses in the summer. Mountain Goats also like to travel miles to treat themselves to mineral licks, especially in the summer.

Seasonal Rounds of the Nez Perce

The Nez Perce used to migrate seasonally throughout their territory to take advantage of resources available at different times of the year. From midsummer to fall, the Nez Perce would travel to the highlands for hunting and harvesting. These months were when Mountain Goats were hunted for their meat, but their soft and thick hair was also used to make clothing and saddle pads.

Mountain Goats are found in northwestern North America and the only living species in its genus (Oreamnos). Despite its name, Mountain Goats are not closely related to domesticated goats. A more appropriate name would be “goat-antelopes.’ Its closest relatives are the European Chamois and Asian Goral and Serow.

Sources:

Idaho Fish & Game. Mountain Goat Hunting. March 2021. https://idfg.idaho.gov/hunt/mountain-goat

Montana Fish, Wildlife, & Parks. Species Guide: Mountain Goat. March 2021. https://fwp.mt.gov/hunt/regulations/mountain-goat

National Geographic. Mountain Goat. March 2021. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/mountain-goat#:~:text=Mountain%20goats%20are%20powerful%20but,camouflage%20on%20the%20snowy%20heights

Nez Perce (Nee-Me-Poo) National Historic Trail. Along the Nez Perce Trail: A Coloring and Activity Book. Heritage Design. https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fsbdev3_055634.pdf
Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. Mountain Goat. March 2021. https://wdfw.wa.gov/species-habitats/species/oreamnos-americanus#living

Scientific Name: Castor canadensis
Niimíipuu Name: Táx̣cpol

Description: The genus Castor has two species: Castor canadensis (North America) and Castor fiber (Eurasia). The North American beaver has 24 subspecies with a mixture found across North America due to reintroductions of different beavers to various regions. The dominant subspecies along the Nez Perce (Nee-Me-Poo) National Historic Trail is Castor canadensis concisor, with the subspecies Castor canadensis taylori also found along the Snake River drainage.

The North American beaver ranges in size, but some of the largest beavers reach up to 4 feet long and weigh up to 70 pounds! They are muscular with a teardrop-shaped body, which is broadest along the hips. Beavers have small round eyes and a large head that is held up by a thick neck. Their fur is long and coarse to repel dirt and water with fur color ranging from black/dark brown to reddish-brown. Both limbs have five digits, but the forelimbs are smaller than the hind. The forefeet are clawed for digging and flexible so they can carry food and supplies, and the hindfeet are webbed to swim in the water efficiently. One of the most distinctive features on a beaver is their broad and flat tail, which is primarily used for fat storage and communication. Put together, and the beaver is highly specialized for a semi-aquatic lifestyle. In the water, they use their webbed hindfeet to propel themselves and the tail to steer. Also, they have transparent eyelids and valves that shut off their ears and nose to protect them from the water. On the land, the tail is used for balance while food and other materials are carried with the forefeet.

Beavers are well known for their construction of dams. Dams are built to stop and accumulate water to expand their ideal habitat, increase food supply, protect them from predators, and provide enough water for winter survival. They can build the dams with wood by using their long, chisel-shaped orange incisors to cut branches and trees and then carry the building supplies with their forefeet. The incisors continue to grow, so the beavers never run the risk of wearing down their front teeth and can always gnaw on wood.

In addition to dams, beavers construct multi-chamber lodges out of wood and mud in shallow water for shelter. Lodges tend to be found along banks with the entrance underwater. The first internal chamber is used for feeding, while the second chamber is located higher up, so it is dry and warm. The second chamber is where beavers sleep and rear their offspring, called kits.

Beavers tend to live in family colonies composed of an adult breeding pair, their new offspring (kits), and the offspring from the previous year. The family colony lives in a lodge together, with the adult female initiating activities such as building the dam, lodge, or food cache. Independently, beavers will cut wood, build, and defend their territory if it is needed. They communicate with each other by slapping their tails on the water surface to warn others in their colony of danger or to scare predators away. In general, these activities take place at night since they are nocturnal.

Habitat and Food: Beavers live in a wide variety of habitats since they can modify the environment to fit their needs. However, at a minimum, they require a permanent body of water with an adequate food supply. You can find beavers throughout most of North America except for the Alaskan tundra, South Carolina, some areas of the Midwest, and the Florida peninsula.

Beavers are foragers, so they gather food and carry it back to their territory or lodge for consumption. They are herbivores with their diet primarily consisting of leaves, twigs, bark, and aquatic vegetation. One of their favorite trees to consume are willows since the bark is high in protein and easily digestible.

Mythology: The beaver is a prominent creature in multiple native legends. One Nez Perce legend is called How the Beaver Stole Fire:

Animals and trees used to communicate like humans and walked around the landscape. During this time, Pine Trees were the only ones who could make fire and refused to tell any other species how to make it, despite the freezing winters. During one of these cold winters, a council of Pine Trees met along the Grande Ronde River and made a large fire with guards so no one could steal the fire. However, the beaver hid until a lump of hot coal rolled down to the riverbank, and the beaver grabbed it and ran away. The Pine Trees chased the beaver, but he dodged them by moving side to side and running straight ahead, which is why sections of the Grande Ronde River weaves and is straight in some areas. Eventually, the Pine Trees grew tired and stopped, so the river has dense forests along the riverbanks. The beaver swam across the river, where the Grande Ronde River joined the Snake River and gave fire to the Birches and other trees. The beaver is to thank for why animals and humans can make fire by rubbing two pieces of wood together.

The North American beaver is a semi-aquatic mammal and the largest rodent in North America. The North American beaver was named the Oregon state animal in 1969, so Oregon’s nickname is the “Beaver State.” Beavers are unique from other species since they create dams, which modifies the environment by building up water and preventing soil erosion. Beaver was considered a delicacy by the Nez Perce and they made their teeth into necklaces. Some Nez Perce also hunted them and sold their pelts to support their families.

Sources:

Boyle, S. & Owens, S. 2007. North American Beaver (Castor canadensis): A Technical Conservation Assessment [Online]. UDSA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region. Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/r2/projects/scp/assessments/northamericanbeaver.pdf

Judson, K.B. 1910. Myths and legends of the Pacific Northwest, especially of Washington and Oregon. McClurg, Chicago. Available: https://archive.org/details/mythslegendsofpa00judsuoft/mode/2up

Smith, R. & Smith, M. 2003. B Is for Beaver: An Oregon Alphabet. Sleeping Bear Press, China.

Scientific Name: Entosphenus tridentatus
Niimiipuutímt: hesúutin’

General Species Description: Lampreys belong to a primitive group of fishes that are eel-like in form but lack the jaws and paired fins of true fishes. Pacific lampreys have a round sucker-like mouth, no scales, and gill openings. Identification of lampreys depends largely on the number, structure, and position of teeth found in adult lamprey; adult Pacific lampreys are characterized by the presence of 3 large anterior teeth and many smaller posterior teeth on the oral disc. As larvae (ammocoetes), they are difficult to distinguish from other lampreys.

Life History: As adults in the marine environment, Pacific lampreys are parasitic and feed on a variety of marine and anadromous fish including Pacific salmon, flatfish, rockfish, and pollock, and are preyed upon by sharks, sea lions, and other marine animals. They have been caught in depths ranging from 300 to 2,600 feet, and as far off the west coast as 62 miles in ocean haul nets.

After spending 1 to 3 years in the marine environment, Pacific lampreys cease feeding and migrate to freshwater between February and June. They are thought to overwinter and remain in freshwater habitat for approximately one year before spawning where they may shrink in size up to 20 percent. Most upstream migration takes place at night. Adult size at the time of migration ranges from about 15 to 25 inches.

Pacific lampreys spawn in similar habitats to salmon; in gravel bottomed streams, at the upstream end of riffle habitat, typically above suitable ammocoete habitat. Spawning occurs between March and July depending upon location within their range. The degree of homing is unknown, but adult lampreys cue in on ammocoete areas which release pheromones that are thought to aid adult migration and spawning location.

Both sexes construct the nests, often moving stones with their mouth. After the eggs are deposited and fertilized, the adults typically die within 3 to 36 days after spawning.

Pacific Lamprey Life Cycle: Adults spawn in gravel nest in stream riffles, and then die. Eggs hatch into larvae (ammocoetes) and drift downstream to slow velocity area. Ammocoetes live in silt/sand substrates and filter feed for 3 - 7 years. Larvae transform to juveniles (macropthalmia) and migrate to the ocean. Adults develop teeth on sucking disk for parasitic feeding. Adults live in ocean 1-3 years and feed on host fish. Adults migrate to freshwater and reside there about a year.

Embryos hatch in approximately 19 days at 59° Fahrenheit (F) and the ammocoetes drift downstream to areas of low velocity and fine substrates where they burrow, grow and live as filter feeders for 3 to 7 years and feed primarily on diatoms and algae. Several generations and age classes of ammocoetes may occur in high densities. Ammocoetes move downstream as they age and during high flow events. We know little about movement and locations of ammocoetes within the substrates. Anecdotal information suggests that they may occur within the hyporheic zone and may move laterally through stream substrates.

Metamorphosis to macropthalmia (juvenile phase) occurs gradually over several months as developmental changes occur, including the appearance of eyes and teeth, and they leave the substrate to enter the water column. Transformation from ammocoetes to macropthalmia typically begins in the summer and is complete by winter. They move downstream as they emigrate to the ocean between late fall and spring where they mature into adults.

Range: Pacific lampreys are the most widely distributed lamprey species on the west coast of the United States. They have been found in streams from Hokkaido Island, Japan, and around the Pacific Rim including Alaska, Canada, Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and California to Punta Canoas, Baja California, Mexico. Their distribution includes major river systems such as the Fraser, Columbia, Klamath-Trinity, Eel, and Sacramento-San Joaquin Rivers. Pacific lamprey distribution patterns are similar to that of anadromous salmonids.

Status: Historically, Pacific lampreys are thought to be distributed wherever salmon and steelhead occurred. However, recent data indicate that distribution of the Pacific lamprey has been reduced in many river drainages. They no longer exist above dams and other impassable barriers in west coast streams, including many larger rivers throughout coastal Washington, Oregon, and California, and above dams in the upper Snake and Columbia Rivers. Available data also indicates that Pacific lampreys have declined in abundance throughout the Columbia River basin and southern California. Thus, the need for immediate conservation of lampreys is evident.

Sources:

USFWS, Jan. 2008 B. Streif –Portland OR
Nez Perce use of the Southeast Washington Sub-basin by Josiah Blackeage Pinkham
https://www.nwcouncil.org/media/19460/AppI_NPTCultural_Study.pdf
Additional information:
http://www.fws.gov/Pacific/fisheries/sphabcon/lamprey/index.cfm

Scientific Name: Crotalus viridis
Niimiipuutímt: wéexpus

Adults have a triangular head, blunt nose, narrow neck, and stout body and range in length from 15-60 inches. Skin color can range from pale green to brown with a series of brown or black blotches ringed with a dark and then light line. The blotches merge into rings on the rattle-tipped tail. Shaking its rattle tail to warn potential predators, its fangs are hollow and hinged, allowing them to be folded back against the roof of the mouth.

Range: These rattlesnakes are found in North America over much of the Great Plains in central the United States east of the Rocky Mountains.

Their huge distribution ranges from southwestern Canada through the United States from Montana and Idaho east to western Iowa and south to Texas and into northern Mexico. They inhabit most of Montana, where it is one of 10 snake species but the only venomous one found in the state.

Habitat: They are found mostly in grasslands and prairies but also in woods, forests, brush, caves, rock ledges, and alongside streams. The species tends to avoid desert areas. Prairie rattlesnakes are found from near sea level up to over 9000 ft (2700 m) of altitude in Wyoming.

Food: Due to the prairie rattlesnakes extensive range, they prey on a variety of animals. Usually, they prefer small mammals, like prairie dogs, voles, shrews, ground squirrels, small rabbits, mice or rats and ground nesting birds and sometimes even other snakes. Juvenile and younger snakes will occasionally feed on smaller amphibians and reptiles.

Nez Perce Traditional Uses: Nez Perce would make poison arrows in preparation for war by provoking captured rattlesnakes into striking pieces of liver which they then smeared onto arrowheads. It is said the Nez Perce Indians invoked a charm against evil by placing a rattler’s head on hot coals in the earth and covering it with fresh liver and gall from wild beasts. During the steaming the liver was thought to absorb venom from the head, which was then carried as a talisman in a buckskin bag.

Scientific Name: Phrynosoma douglasii
Niimíipuu Name: ’ap’ap’áap’ap (lizard

Description:

The Pygmy Short-Horned Lizard is a medium-sized lizard with a toad-like appearance. They have round and flat bodies, short legs, blunt snouts, and a short and rectangular tail. Pygmy Short-Horned Lizards are cryptic, meaning they can camouflage to the environment around it. Usually, they will be soil colors since they burrow into soil. From their shout to the beginning of their tails, they tend to be about 3 inches long. And in this species, females tend to be larger than males.

Pygmy Short-Horned Lizards live in shrub-steppe habitats such as sagebrush deserts, juniper woodlands, and open coniferous forests. They prefer sandy soils, since they are easier to burrow themselves into, but will also be found on rocky soils.

For the most part, Pygmy Short-Horned Lizards eat ants, but they also eat beetles, caterpillars, spiders, and sowbugs. Young lizards only eat ants, but adult lizards will vary their diet. Adults are active in the middle of the day during spring and fall but stay inactive in the summer because of the high temperatures. In the spring after they emerge from inactivity, mating occurs.

Nez Perce Mythology:

The Nez Perce considered the horned lizard to be a weather-changer and doctor. It was said that if the Nez Perce disrespected the horned lizard, then winter would return during root digging season, making the ground too hard to dig into. The Nez Perce also believed the horned lizard could cure the ill or injured by blowing short puffs of healing breath.

The Pygmy-Short Horned Lizard (Phyrnosoma douglasii) are found in the northwest United States, primarily in ID, WA, and OR along the Nez Perce (Nee-Me-Poo) National Historic Trail. They are nicknamed “horny toads”, because they resemble toads, but they are reptiles. The Pygmy-Short Horned Lizard is often mistaken for its close relative, the Greater Short-Horned Lizard, but is smaller and the Greater Short-Horned Lizards lives in Nevada and North and South Dakota.

Sources:

Idaho Fish & Game. Pygmy Short-horned Lizard. April 2021. https://idfg.idaho.gov/species/taxa/17126

Oregon Department of Fish & Wildlife. Lizards and Skinks. April 2021. https://myodfw.com/wildlife-viewing/species/lizards-and-skinks

Sonneck, V & Angel Sobotta. Nimipuutimt Volume 4. April 2021. http://www.nimipuutimt.org/uploads/1/4/0/6/14060280/nimipuutimt_volume_4.pdf

Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. Pygmy Short-horned Lizard (Phyrnosoma douglasii). April 2021. https://wdfw.wa.gov/species-habitats/species/phrynosoma-douglasii#desc-range

Scientific Name: Corvus corax
Niimíipuu Name: qó’qox̣

Traits and Behaviors: The raven has glossy and black feathers with long, pointed wings and a tail shaped like a wedge. They have longer shaggy feathers around the throat called “hackles” and a long and curved beak. Ravens look like crows but are larger, their tail is shaped like a wedge, and they have a hoarser bird call that sounds like a low croak. Male ravens are larger than females and can reach up to 27 inches in length and can weigh up to 3-4 pounds.

Ravens eat a variety of foods including arthropods, small mammals, amphibians, reptiles, birds and their eggs, berries, carrion, grains, and buds. They also have been scavenging off human food and livestock since early settlers moved into the region. Ravens can be found in a variety of habitats, such as boreal, conifer, and deciduous forests, tundra, prairies, and human inhabited areas, but prefer coniferous forests.

Ravens nest in large trees and protect territories up to 10 square kilometers with a long-term monogamous breeding partner. They begin to pair and breed at around 3 or 4 years old and stay with the same partner until death, at around 10-15 years old. Non-breeding ravens form flocks with juvenile birds and adults that do not have a mate. These social groups are flexible based on changing conditions and degree of competition between ravens.

Intelligence: Raven intelligence is at the level of humans for certain behaviors. For example, ravens are capable of planning for future events and tasks, which was previously thought to only be a human and great ape behavior. Ravens can also remember human faces and adjust to complex human environments, such as using a trash can to get food. They hold funerals for their dead and even hold grudges against ravens that cheat or are unfair to others.

Mythology: Ravens are an important animal in a lot of Native American legends and often seen as a trickster because of their intelligence. They are also mentioned in the Nez Perce creation story for the relationships between animals and humans called A Meeting Between Creator and the Animals:

The Creator called forward animals to say human beings were being created and that the animals would have to argue their qualifications for helping humans or be turned to stone. The Crow argued they wanted to be black and could warn animals in times of danger. The crows qualified, but one crow came forward and said but wanted to be bigger and have a different sounding voice for their warning call (hoarser). So, the Creator made them a raven.

The animals that did not qualify were turned to stone and can be seen along the Clearwater River near Lewiston, ID.

The common raven belongs to the Family Corvidae, which also includes crows, magpies, and jays. Ravens are known for their intelligence and are the largest North American passerine (order). The subspecies that live in the north and west United States and Canada are the Corvus corax principalis (northern raven) and Corvus corax sinuatus (western raven). The Nez Perce feel that Ravens are powerful doctors and messengers and that people with the Raven’s powers can interpret Raven’s messages. Ravens bring news of significance over long distances without the chill of the Great Horned Owl’s tidings, which brings news of death.

Sources:

Boucherie, P.H., Loretto, M.C., Massen, J.J.M., & Bugnyar, T. 2019. What constitutes “social complexity” and “social intelligence” in birds? Lessons from ravens. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 73(12). DOI: 10.1007/s00265-018-2607-2

Hutto, RL & Young, JS. 1999. Habitat Relationships of Landbirds in the Northern Region, USDA Forest Service. USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station. https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr032.pdf

Idaho Department of Fish and Game. Common Raven. November 2020. https://idfg.idaho.gov/species/taxa/18042

Kabadayi, C. & Osvath, M. 2017. Ravens parallel great apes in flexible planning for tool-use and bartering. Science. 357(6347): 202-204. DOI: 10.1126/science.aam8138

Landeen, D. & Pinkham, A. 1999. Salmon and his People: Fish & Fishin in Nez Perce Culture. Confluence Pr.

Müller, J.J.A., Massen, J.J.M., Bugnyar, T., & Osvath, M. 2017. Ravens remember the nature of a single reciprocal interactions sequence over 2 days and even after a month. Animal Behaviour. 128: 69-78. DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.04.004

USDA Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service Wildlife Services. Common Ravens. February 2020. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/reports/Wildlife%20Damage%20Management%20Technical%20Series/Common%20Ravens_WDM%20Technical%20Series_February%202020.pdf

USDA Forest Service Boise National Forest. Learning Center: Raven. November 2020. https://www.fs.usda.gov/detailfull/boise/learning/?cid=stelprdb5304003&width=full

USDA Forest Service Medicine Bow-Routt National Forests & Thunder Basin National Grassland. Corvids. November 2020. https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr032.pdf

Washington U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Common Raven. November 2020. https://www.fws.gov/refuge/willapa/wildlife_and_habitat/birds/common_raven.html

Scientific Name: Catostomus commersonii
Niimíipuu Name: cúuy’em (Fish)

Description: White Sucker Fish, despite the name, are an olive brown to black with shading to white on the underside of the fish. They are long and round-bodied with scales that increase in size from the front to the back. Their mouth faces downward, indicating it feeds from the bottom, and eat detritus and insects. Fun fact! The White Sucker’s lips are covered in taste buds.

They can grow up to 5 pounds and found in all kinds of fresh water, including muddy, clear, warm, cold, running, and standing water. Females produce over 100,000 eggs. The abundance of eggs enables them to produce large populations in a short period of time. After they sexually mature in their third year, the White Sucker spawns from April into June by moving upstream. Eggs hatch about 12 to 20 days after fertilization.

Nez Perce Fishing: The Nez Perce caught White Suckers in weirs, which is an enclosure to stakes placed in stream to trap fish. The White Suckers were highly valued as a food fish. Fishermen caught them in early spring about two months before the salmon start spawning. The bones of the White Sucker skull are not fully fused and fall apart when cooked. Storytellers gave names to these bones such as Grizzly’s earring, Raven’s socks, Stellar’s jay, Softbasket woman monster, and Cricket packing her child. The whole skull was also called Stellar’s jay.

Nez Perce Mythology: The Nez Perce legend of Sucker and Whitefish said these fish were good friends and attended a feast together. The Sucker took a half-burned log with charcoal to use it as a spoon to sip the porridge. However, the heat from the porridge and spoon thickened the Sucker’s mouth, making their lips bulge out. Because of this, the Sucker has a thick, turned-out mouth. The Sucker told Whitefish that “it takes five pack loads to cook me, not just a little but five whole pack loads.” And therefore, a Sucker also has to be cooked for a long period of time.

The White Sucker Fish (Catostomus commersonii), also called bay fish, brook sucker, common sucker, and mullet. The White Sucker live in fresh water and known for their large lips, giving them the name “sucker.” They are found in waters throughout the Midwest, including Montana. The White Sucker is often confused with the Longnose Sucker, because they both have distinctive large lips.

Sources:

Landee, D. & J. Crow (Eds.) 1997. Nez Perce Nature Guide: I am of his Land Wetes pem’ewes. Second Printing. Nez Perce Tribe.

National Park Service. White Sucker (Catostomus commersonii). Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Minnesota. April 2021. https://www.nps.gov/miss/learn/nature/white-sucker-catostomus-commersonii.htm

United States Geological Survey. White Sucker (Catostomus commersonii). April 2021. https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=346

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